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Vil.  XXXI  PSYCHOLOGICAL  REVIEW  PUBLICATIONS  ^Soo**  ^ 

No.  1  19  22 


Psychological  Monographs 

EDITED  BY 

JAMES  ROWLAND  ANGELL,  Yale  University 
HOWARD  C.  WARREN,  Princeton  University  ( Review ) 

JOHN  B.  WAtSON,  New  York  (/.  of  Exp .  Psychol.) 

SHEPHERD  I.  FRANZ,  Govt.  Hosp.  for  Insane  ( Bulletin )  and 
MADISON  BENTLEY,  University  of  Illinois  {Index) 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA 
STUDIES  IN  PSYCHOLOGY 

No.  VIII 

Edited 

BY 

CARL  E.  SEASHORE 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  REVIEW  COMPANY 

PRINCETON,  N.  J. 
and  LANCASTER,  PA. 


Agents:  G.  E.  STECHERT  &  CO.,  London  <2  Star  Yard,  Carey  St.,  W 

Paris  (16  rue  de  Cond6) 


CONTENTS 


Preface  .  iii 

Wave  Phase  in  the  Open-air  Localization 
of  Sound  . C.  E.  Seashore .  i 


The  Role  of  Intensity  in  Auditory  Wave 
Phase  . Henry  M.  Halverson .  7 

The  Intensity  Logarithmic  Law  and  the 
Difference  of  Phase  Effect  in  Binaural 

Audition  . G.  W.  Stewart .  30 

Measurement  of  Acuity  of  Hearing 
Throughout  the  Tonal  Range . Cordia  C.  Bunch .  45 

Measurement  of  Auditory  Acuity  with  the 

Iowa  Pitch  Range  Audiometer . Benjamin  Franklin  Zuehl.  83 

A  Stroboscopic  Device  for  Measuring 
Revolution  Rates  . Benjamin  Franklin  Zuehl.  98 

Visual  Training  of  the  Pitch  of  the  Voice.. Carl  J.  Knock .  102 

A  Survey  of  Musical  Talent  in  a  Music 
School  . Esther  Allen  Gaw .  128 


The  Inheritance  of  Specific  Musical  Capa¬ 
cities  . Hazel  Martha  Stanton.... 

Voice  Inflection  in  Speech . Glenn  N.  Merry . 

An  Experimental  Study  of  the  Pitch  Factor 
in  Artistic  Singing  . Max  Schoen  . 

Voluntary  Control  of  the  Intensity  of 

Sound  . Dorothea  Emeline  Wickham 

A  Comparison  of  Auditory  Images  of  Mu¬ 
sicians,  Psychologists  and  Children . Marie  Agnew  . . 

The  Auditory  Imagery  of  Great  Composer.^MARiE  Agnew . 

A  Pursuit  Apparatus :  Eye-Hand  Coordi¬ 
nation  . Wilhelmine  Kof.rth . 

The  Tapping  Test:  A  Measure  of  Motility.MERRiLL  J.  Ream . 

Serial  Action  as  a  Basic  Measure  of  Motor 


157 

205 


231 


260 


268 

279 


288 

293 


Capacity 


C.  Frederick  Hansen 


320 


PREFACE 


The  present  volume  consists  in  large  part  of  a  series  of  rather 
extended  abstracts  of  longer  papers  which  have  accumulated  dur¬ 
ing  the  after-war  conditions  of  printing.  Nine  are  doctors’ 
theses,  most  of  which  are  very  much  condensed  from  the  origi¬ 
nal.*  In  nearly  every  case  this  condensing  has  been  done  by  the 
editor,  who,  therefore,  must  assume  a  secondary  share  of  respon¬ 
sibility  for  the  manner  of  presentation  and  the  selection  of  fea¬ 
tures  to  be  presented. 

The  first  three  articles  deal  with  the  wave-phase  localization  of 
sound.  Here  we  are  fortunate  in  having  the  co-operation  of 
Professor  Stewart,  Professor  of  Physics,  who  has  accumulated 
evidence  which  tends  to  support  a  different  theory  from  that 
which  has  been  most  strongly  supported  by  evidence  in  the  Psy¬ 
chological  Laboratory.  Neither  point  of  view  is  yet  fully  estab¬ 
lished,  but  we  must  be  coming  near  to  a  solution  of  the  question 
as  to  whether  wave-phase  localization  takes  place  entirely  in  terms 
of  intensity  or  through  a  specific  receptor  for  wave  phase. 

The  next  eight  articles  deal  primarily  with  problems  in  the 
psychology  of  music.  Dr.  Knock  has  investigated  a  method  of 
training  the  voice  by  the  aid  of  the  eye.  Dr.  Gaw  has  done  the 
pioneer  work  in  introducing  scientific  vocational  guidance  in 
music  in  a  conservatory  of  music.  Dr.  Stanton  has  studied  prin¬ 
ciples  of  inheritance  of  musical  talent  in  well  known  American 
musical  families.  Dr.  Merry  has  developed  a  technique  for 
studying  artistic  effects  of  pitch  modulation  in  speech  and  Dr. 
Schoen  has  made  a  similar  study  of  great  singers,  particularly 
with  reference  to  the  attack,  sustained  intonation,  and  the  vibrato. 
The  two  brief  articles  by  Dr.  Agnew  are  extracts  from  a  mono¬ 
graph  which  was  unfortunately  left  unfinished  by  her  untimely 
death  through  accident.  Miss  Wickham’s  paper  represents  one 
of  the  many  examples  of  new  measurement  of  musical  capacity 
which  are  being  developed  in  the  laboratory. 

*  The  articles  by  Knock,  Gaw,  Stanton,  Merry,  Schoen,  Agnew,  Bunch, 
Zuehl  and  Hansen. 


IV 


PREFACE 


The  next  two  articles  constitute  one  unit  in  that  Dr.  Bunch  is 
largely  responsible  for  the  development  of  the  pitch  range  audio¬ 
meter  and  its  use  in  medical  practice,  while  Dr.  Zuehl  has  estab¬ 
lished  norms  and  tendencies  in  acuity  of  hearing  for  so-called 
normal  persons.  In  his  second  article  he  describes  a  simple  sub¬ 
stitute  for  a  tachometer. 

The  last  four  articles  are  examples  of  the  effort  to  establish 
procedure  by  careful,  critical,  and  experimental  review  of  prac¬ 
tice  in  vogue.  Dr.  Hansen’s  study  of  serial  action,  and  Dr. 
Ream’s  study  of  the  tapping  test  should  serve  as  a  starting  point 
for  all  investigators  who  propose  to  use  these  tests  in  applied 
psychology. 

In  the  process  of  abridging,  elaborate  notes  of  acknowledg¬ 
ment  have  been  eliminated  whenever  possible.  With  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  third  article,  all  the  studies  represent  work  done  in  or 
from  the  laboratory  of  the  University  of  Iowa,  and  to  each  par¬ 
ticipant  the  editor  and  director  of  the  laboratory  herewith  ex¬ 
presses  his  sincere  appreciation  of  the  comradeship  in  research 
which  this  volume  betokens. 


The  Editor. 


WAVE  PHASE  IN  THE  OPEN-AIR  LOCALIZATION 

OF  SOUND 

by 

C.  E.  Seashore 

Introduction  to  following  articles  on  wave  phase ;  open  air  conduction; 
statement  of  observed  facts,  dated  1918 ;  outline  of  laboratory  problems, 
dated  1917. 

The  role  of  wave  phase  in  the  localization  of  sound  has  been 
under  investigation  in  our  laboratory  since  1908.  Interest  in  the 
subject  started  with  a  curiosity  about  the  nature  and  laws  of  the 
illusion  we  call  the  phantom  sound.  It  soon  became  evident  that 
we  had  here  an  important  experimental  approach  to  the  theory  of 
sound  localization.  And  then  came  the  submarine.  It  is  well 
known  that  during  the  great  war  the  best  means  we  had  for 
locating  submarines  was  a  listening  instrument  in  which  the 
direction  of  a  source  of  sound  was  located  by  means  of  the 
known  laws  of  this  illusion. 

As  chairman  of  the  committee  on  acoustic  problems  in  the 
National  Research  Council  during  the  war  period,  the  writer  or¬ 
ganized  experimental  work  specifically  aimed  at  the  practical 
operation  of  this  principle  in  the  war  service.  Mr.  H.  M.  Hal¬ 
verson  was  employed  as  research  assistant  and  devoted  his  time 
largely  to  this  problem  for  three  years.  The  technical  account 
of  the  experiments  in  which  he  took  the  main  part  is  presented 
in  the  following  article,  to  which  the  present  article  may  be  re¬ 
garded  as  an  introduction  for  the  purpose  of  orientation.  Re¬ 
ports  of  these  experiments,  with  suggested  practical  application, 
were  furnished  confidentially  through  the  National  Research 
Council  from  time  to  time  during  the  war. 

As  a  bird’s-eye  view,  or  sketch  of  the  nature  and  significance 
of  this  problem  in  “high  lights,”  a  paper  read  at  the  Boston  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  American  Psychological  Association,  December,  1918, 
may  be  helpful.  The  facts  as  known  up  to  that  date  were  stated 
as  follows: 


2 


C.  E.  SEASHORE 


“We  undertook,  as  a  war  problem,  a  study  of  the  danger  of 
finding  more  than  one  apparently  correct  location  of  a  given 
phantom  sound.  I  shall  here  merely  enumerate  some  of  the  con¬ 
clusions  at  which  we  have  arrived. 

We  have  demonstrated  that  the  most  effective  way  to  study  the 
behavior  of  binaural  wave  phase  is  to  dispense  with  the  tubes  or 
other  conductors  to  the  ear,  which  have  previously  been  used  in 
all  experiments,  and  simply  use  open  air  conduction. 

If  two  telephone  receivers,  connected  in  parallel  from  the  same 
source  of  a  tone,  are  set  up  within  audible  distance  in  the  aural 
axis  of  the  observer,  then,  in  moving  gradually  from  one  to  the 
other,  the  observer  will  experience  the  following  result:  For 
each  half  of  a  wave  length  there  is  a  median  plane  localization 
which  we  shall  call  a  loop;  and  midway  between  each  of  these 
is  another  median  plane  localization  which  we  shall  call  a  node. 

The  difference  between  the  two  lies  primarily  in  the  fact  that 
from  the  loop  the  phantom  sound  moves  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  observer  moves  away  from  the  position  at  which  he  heard 
the  phantom  sound  in  the  median  plane ;  whereas,  at  each  node  it 
moves  in  the  opposite  direction.  There  are  also  many  other 
differences. 

Observer  Seashore 

Phase  Loop  Node  Loop  Node  Loop  Node  Loop  Node  Loop  Node  Loop  Node  Loop 


Average 


Position 

Mean 

43  54  62 

72 

82  90  101  1 12 

1 19 

127 

139 

148 

157 

Variation 

1.0  1.5  1.2 

2.0 

0.8  1.6  0.2  0.8 

Observer  Halverson 

0.8 

1.8 

1.0 

1.0 

0.7 

Phase 

Average 

Loop  Node  Loop  Node  Loop  Node  Loop  Node  Loop 

Node  Loop  Node  Loop 

Position 

Mean 

44  52  62 

74 

81  90  100  no 

1 19 

120 

139 

150 

157 

Variation 

0.0  0.5  1.4 

2.0 

0.2  1.6  0.5  2.2 

0.6 

1.0 

0.2 

0.6 

1-3 

All  figures  are  in 
from  the  left  hand 

terms 

source 

of  centimeters,  and  show 
of  sound. 

distance 

of  the 

head 

The  phantom  sound  thus  is  experienced  as  moving  in  a  series 
of  major  and  minor  loops.1  The  records  in  Table  I  are  for  a 
sound  of  930  v.  d.,  the  two  receivers  being  placed  two  meters 

1  For  illustration  of  this  see  Figs.  1-3  in  the  next  following  article,  by 
Halverson. 


WAVE  PHASE  IN  THE  OPEN-AIR  LOCALIZATION 


3 


apart.  The  wave  length  is  here  37.4  centimeters,  at  8o°  tempera¬ 
ture  Fahrenheit.  The  close  agreement  of  the  two  observers  is 
to  be  noted. 

This  open  air  method  is  so  superior  to  the  previous  methods, 
that  we  have  followed  it  entirely  in  working  out  various  problems. 
Briefly  it  may  be  said  that  one  can  demonstrate  in  the  open  air 
all  the  phenomena  of  wave  phase  as  demonstrated  through  con¬ 
ductors  and,  in  addition,  many  others  which  could  not  be  brought 
under  control  by  the  earlier  methods. 

If  the  two  tones  beat,  the  observer  standing  at  any  point  be¬ 
tween  the  two  sources  will  hear  the  phantom  sound  moving  in  an 
ellipse  at  a  pace  determined  by  the  rate  of  the  beat. 

Whether  the  loop  shall  lie  forward,  upward,  or  back,  is,  in  all 
cases,  a  matter  of  tendency  in  association,  and  is  immaterial;  i.e., 
as  in  ordinary  location  of  sound,  we  cannot  locate  sound  radially 
in  the  median  plane. 

If  the  sound  in  the  two  sources  gradually  rises  in  pitch,  an 
endless  train  of  loops  and  nodes  will  pass  the  observer.  Indeed, 
one  can  make  very  fine  pitch  discriminations  in  terms  of  the 
movement  of  the  phantom  sound  in  the  rise  or  lowering  of  pitch. 

In  many  of  the  earlier  experiments,  the  simple  conception  of 
a  single  median  plane  localization  was  due  to  the  fact  that  a 
comparatively  long  wave;  i.e.,  low  pitch,  was  used. 

The  most  significant  thing  for  practical  purposes  is  the  finding 
that  in  the  phantom  sound  the  various  overtones  separate  and 
each  moves  in  its  own  orbit  at  its  own  peculiar  rate.  This  timbre 
analysis  is,  indeed,  very  beautiful. 

If  you  energize  a  telephone  receiver  with  three  or  four  super¬ 
imposed  frequencies,  whether  in  harmonic  series  or  not,  each 
frequency  will  result  in  a  play  of  its  own  phantom  sound,  and 
the  behavior  of  each  partial  in  its  orbit  is  the  same  as  if  it  were 
the  only  tone. 

If  we  have  a  single  rich  source  it  instantly  breaks  up  into  the 
fundamental  and  the  various  overtones  in  remarkable  purity. 
Thus,  for  example,  if  the  telephone  be  put  in  the  60  cycle  A.C. 
circuit,  a  rich  tone  is  produced  in  which  the  first  overtone  is  domi- 


4 


C.  E.  SEASHORE 


nant  and  an  untrained  observer  will  instantly  locate  that  as  the 
principal  tone. 

The  significance  of  this  is,  of  course,  clear.  While,  in  the 
submarine  listening,  many  different  conditions  obtain,  all  devices 
should  take  into  account  the  danger,  even  the  certainty  that  a 
given  fundamental  tone  will  have  four  median  plane  localizations 
for  each  wave  length,  and  that  each  overtone,  or  accessory  tone, 
has  its  own  orbit  and  its  own  median  plane  localization.  The 
submarine  listener  should,  theoretically,  find  a  number  of  median 
plane  localizations;  not  only  for  a  given  pure  tone,  but  median 
localizations  for  each  overtone,  in  a  complex  tone. 

Fortunately,  some  of  the  median  localizations  coincide,  as  in 
any  harmonic  series,  and  it  is  possible  to  train  the  observer  to 
distinguish  a  node  from  a  loop,  and  an  observer  keen  in  tone 
analysis,  who  knows  the  pitch  of  the  tone  which  he  is  to  locate, 
may  learn  to  disregard  the  intrusion  of  overtones. 

The  behavior  of  the  phantom  sound,  and  all  its  segregated  har¬ 
monics,  or  other  accessories,  may  be  explained  and  interpreted  in 
terms  of  the  dynamics  of  the  standing  wave. 

The  hearing  of  the  wave  phase  becomes  difficult  and  finally  im¬ 
possible  as  one  gets  very  close  to  one  of  the  sources  thereby 
making  the  intensity  difference  so  gross  that  it  can  not  be  over¬ 
come  by  the  wave  phase  difference. 

In  the  open  air,  the  wave  phase  effect  can  be  obtained  by  the 
observer  being  placed  in  any  direction  from  the  two  sources;  that 
is,  instead  of  this  effect  being  obtainable  only  in  the  lines  be¬ 
tween  the  two  receivers,  it  may  be  obtained  anywhere  within  the 
area  of  audibility. 

In  a  closed  room  the  phenomena  of  reflection  complicated  the 
hearing  in  a  most  intricate  way  but,  of  course,  all  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  sound  reflection  and  interference. 

The  size  of  the  loops  and  the  apparent  loudness  of  the  phantom 
sound  vary  in  a  very  intricate  but  predictable  way  within  the 
audible  area. 

The  relative  loudness  at  loop  and  node  depends  upon  the  ratio 
of  the  wave  length  to  the  inter-aural  distance.  For  a  long  time 
we  had  difficulty  from  the  fact  that  we  did  not  realize  that  with 


WAVE  PHASE  IN  THE  OPEN-AIR  LOCALIZATION 


5 


high  tones  the  quarter  wave  is  so  short  that  the  crests  may  fall 
entirely  within  the  inter-aural  distance  and  may  be  lost. 

In  passing  by  small  stages  from  one  source  to  the  other,  one 
may  hear  the  rise  and  fall  of  intensity  in  each  of  the  components 
of  a  tone,  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  interference  with 
the  standing  wave  phase. 

We  have  measured  empirically  the  flux  in  intensity  from  one 
receiver  to  another  with  the  audiometer,  and  the  empirical  curve 
for  observable  flux  in  intensity  corresponds  with  the  observed 
movement  of  the  phantom  sound,  its  apparent  loudness  and  dis¬ 
tance  in  the  various  parts  of  its  orbit. 

The  intensity  in  the  two  sources  may  vary  very  considerably 
without  destroying  the  wave  phase  effect. 

Both  theoretically  and  practically  we  may  plat  a  topographi¬ 
cal  map  of  crests  and  valleys  representing  intensity  of  sound;  and 
the  actual  behavior  of  the  phantom  sound  at  any  place  may  be 
predicted  by  treating  each  crest  as  a  source  of  sound.” 

So  far  the  first  public  report.  The  program  on  which  we  were 
at  work  in  the  laboratory  at  that  time  may  aid  in  throwing  Dr. 
Halverson’s  account  into  relief.  I  find  the  following  memoran¬ 
dum  from  1917: 

The  Role  of  Wave-Phase  Intensity  in  the  Localisation  of  Sound 
A.  Two  sources: 

1.  Transition  from  absolute  intensity  to  relative  intensity  localization. 

2.  Result  of  relative  intensity  due  to  stimulation  of  both  ears  from 
each  side. 

3.  The  empirical  curve  for  flux  in  intensity  from  L.  to  R. 

4.  Result  for  tones  composed  of  three  elements  of  pitch. 

5.  Result  for  tones  of  unknown  pitch  elements. 

6.  Pitch  limits  for  localization  with  pure  tones. 

7.  Effect  of  absolute  intensity  with  pure  tones. 

8.  Effect  of  absolute  distance  to  source  from  the  ears. 

9.  Effect  of  distance  with  reference  to  fraction  of  wave  length. 

10.  Range  of  effect  of  reflection. 

11.  Characteristics  of  passage  of  tone  at  a  minimum. 

12.  Characteristics  of  passage  of  pure  tone  at  a  maximum. 

13.  Relation  of  open  ear  localization  to  localization  in  T-tubes. 

14.  Relation  of  open  ear  localization  to  beating  tones  with  tubes. 

15.  Relation  of  open  ear  localization  to  tones  in  open  air. 

16.  Limits  of  pitch  differences  in  the  two  sources. 

17.  Relation  of  theoretical  center  of  head  to  actual  ear  distances. 


6 


C.  E.  SEASHORE 


18.  The  effect  of  varying  radial  axis  upon  the  center  of  the  head. 

19.  Gradual  rise  in  pitch  described  in  terms  of  rotation  of  sound. 

20.  The  swinging  of  one  source  as  a  pendulum  described  in  terms  of 

rotation  of  sound. 

21.  The  effect  of  pure  tone  on  one  side  and  unanalyzed  rich  tone  on  the 
other. 

22.  The  effect  of  fundamental  on  octave ;  also  other  intervals. 

23.  Nodes  for  different  kinds  of  noises. 

24.  Wave-phase  in  Starch’s  norm  for  perimetry  of  sound. 

25.  Relation  to  confusion  points. 

26.  Intra-cranial  localization. 

B.  One  source: 

1.  Verification  of  nodes  for  sound  from  one  source. 

2.  Crucial  differentiation  between  internal  conduction  and  conduction 
around  head. 

3.  Use  one  receiver  and  sound  reflected  from  the  wall  for  the  other. 

4.  Describe  rise  of  pitch  in  terms  of  rotation. 

5.  Effect  of  radial  direction  from  center  of  the  head. 

6.  Check  in  monaural  hearing. 

C.  Three  or  more  sources: 

1.  Effect  of  one  real  and  one  phantom  sound. 

2.  Effect  of  radial  change  and  direction  of  both  real  and  phantom 
sounds. 

3.  Elements  of  fusion. 

D.  General  application  to  all  normal  hearing  of  direction. 

E.  Genetic  theory  of  space  perception  in  hearing. 

On  the  theoretical  side  the  fundamental  issue  arose :  does  the 
ear  have  a  localization  mechanism  for  wave-phase  as  such,  or  is 
the  wave  phase  localization  reducible  to  the  binaural  intensity 
principle?  Frankly  we  approached  the  subject  with  strong  con¬ 
victions  in  favor  of  the  latter.  For  a  deeper  appreciation  of  the 
other  alternative  we  are  indebted  to  Professor  G.  W.  Stewart, 
who  has  pursued  the  same  subject  from  the  point  of  view  of 
physics  with  notable  results. 


THE  ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY 

WAVE  PHASE 

by 

Henry  M.  Halverson,  Ph.D. 

Fundamental  facts  observed;  the  phantom  at  the  loop ;  the  phantom  at  the 
node;  relative  intensity  for  each  unit  field,  ( methods  A  and  B) ;  comparison 
of  tones  of  different  pitch;  effect  of  direction  of  the  current;  variation  in 
absolute  intensity  of  the  sources;  difference  in  intensity  of  the  two  sources; 
relation  of  distance  to  loudness;  effect  of  moving  one  source;  localisation  out¬ 
side  of  the  line  of  the  receivers;  timbre;  phantoms  of  fundamentals  and 
overtones. 

Wave  phase  localization  can  be  studied  best  perhaps  under  nor¬ 
mal  conditions;  i.e.,  without  the  aid  of  conductors  for  the  ears. 
In  our  work,  at  least,  it  has  been  found  profitable  to  do  away 
with  artificial  means  as  far  as  possible.  The  apparatus  is  indeed 
simple,  consisting  merely  of  a  tone  generator  (a  Leeds  and  Nor- 
thrup  oscillator)  and  two  telephone  receivers  with  the  necessary 
wiring  for  connections.  The  receivers  face  each  other  at  such 
distances  as  the  experimenter  may  elect,  the  intensity  and  pitch 
of  the  tone  under  control  of  the  experimenter.  Observations 
are  taken  from  a  meter  stick  which  is  suspended  overhead  be¬ 
tween  the  receivers. 

Fundamental  facts  observed 

The  resultant  of  two  tones  of  the  same  pitch,  produced  under 
conditions  as  described  above,  is  a  phantom  sound  which  be¬ 
haves  in  accordance  with  certain  predictable  conditions,  deter¬ 
mined  almost  wholly  by  the  wave  length  of  the  tone. 

Let  us  consider  for  the  moment  the  stationary  wave,  which  re¬ 
sults  when  two  sources  emit  tones  of  equal  wave  length,  or  ap¬ 
proximately  equal  amplitude,  and  moving  in  opposite  directions. 
Case  A,  Fig.  i  shows  two  waves  moving  in  opposite  directions 
(the  thin  wavy  line  starting  at  the  R  side,  and  the  dotted  wavy 


8 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


Fig.  i. — The  standing  wave  in  relation  to  wave  phase  localization;  A, 
wave  phase  in  opposition;  B,  C,  D  and  E,  one  wave  leading  by  *4,  M> 
and  x/2  wave  length  respectively. 


line  starting  at  the  L  side).  As  the  phases  of  the  two  waves  are 
diametrically  opposed  at  every  point  of  the  diagram,  the  resultant 
is  shown  by  the  heavy  straight  line;  i.e.,  there  is  no  disturbance 
of  the  medium.  Case  B  shows  the  waves  as  having  advanced 
each  one-eighth  wave  length.  (In  all  these  figures  the  stationary 
wave  is  represented  by  the  heavy  line).  Case  C  shows  the  two 
original  waves  as  having  each  advanced  one-fourth  wave  length. 
In  this  case  they  coincide  throughout  their  entire  course  and  re¬ 
sult  in  a  maximum  wave.  Case  D  shows  the  moving  waves  in 
positions  another  one-eighth  wave  length  further  along,  and,  in 
Case  E  each  wave  has  progressed  one-half  wave  length.  Thus, 
for  the  present  purpose,  (i)  there  are  several  points  from  L  to 
R  where  the  medium  is  greatly  disturbed;  namely,  x2,  X3,  X4, 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


9 


X5,  and  x6.  These  disturbance  points  occur  at  each  one-half 
wave  length.  (2)  Midway  between  these  positions  are  points 
where  the  medium  is  but  little  agitated;  namely,  yi,  y2,  y3,  y4, 
y5>  and  y6. 

Let  us  note  the  changes  in  localization  which  occur  at  various 
positions  in  the  axis  of  the  receivers.  In  some  instances  the 
phantom  sound  moves  in  the  same  direction  as  the  head  is  moved, 
and  in  other  instances  it  moves  in  the  opposite  direction.  Or, 
more  concretely,  let  the  head  be  held  in  the  position  of  X4,  Fig.  1, 
the  nose  being  the  indicator  of  position.  With  the  axis  of  the 
ears  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  receivers  the  phantom  sound  will 
be  observed  to  be  somewhere  in  the  median  plane,  clear  but  re¬ 
mote.  This  position  is  known  as  a  “loop”  center.  A  slight  shift 
of  the  head  toward  either  y3  or  y4  will  quickly  displace  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  phantom  sound  in  a  graceful  curve  in  the  same  di¬ 
rection  in  which  the  head  is  moved.  If  the  head  is  moved  far 
enough  in  either  direction  the  phantom  sound  will  come  to  the 
level  of  the  receivers  and  approach  the  ear  from  the  side  toward 
which  the  observer  is  moving.  If  the  head  be  held  in  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  y3,  the  phantom  sound,  as  such,  may  be  said  to  have  dis¬ 
appeared  within  the  head.  However,  the  sound  has  now  suffered 
such  change  in  quality  by  the  addition  of  confusion  tones  that  it 
is  hardly  recognizable  as  the  same  tone.  Localization  at  this 
point  is  thus  median  but  intra-cranial  and  is  known  as  a  “node.” 
Moving  the  head  slightly  toward  either  side  causes  the  phantom 
sound  to  appear  immediately  outside  the  ear.  A  still  greater 
movement  of  the  head  will  bring  the  phantom  in  a  graceful  arc 
around  to  the  loop  center.1 

The  fundamental  characteristics  which  distinguish  the  loop  and 
the  node  may  be  enumerated  as  follows : 

The  loop:  (1)  The  phantom  moves  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  head.  (2)  The  phantom  is  at  its  maximum  distance  from 

1  The  writer  takes  advantage  of  his  proof-sheets  to  add  that  the  intra¬ 
cranial  localization  now  appears  to  be  illusory.  The  phantom  moves  quickly 
from  one  side  of  the  head  to  the  other  and  is  interrupted  as  moving  through 
the  head,  or  else  it  exists  at  both  sides  simultaneously  and  is  compromised 
under  the  task  of  localization  as  within  the  head.  See  his  subsequent  ex¬ 
periments  to  be  reported  in  Am.  J.  Psychol.,  1922,  32,  April. 


IO 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


the  head  and  its  minimum  intensity.  (3)  The  phantom  moves 
swiftly,  but  gracefully,  from  right  to  left  and  vice  versa  with 
movement  of  the  head.  (4)  There  is  no  confusion  involved  with 
the  localization  of  the  phantom  and  no  confusion  tones  are  ap¬ 
parent. 

The  node:  ( 1 )  The  direction  of  the  movement  of  the  phantom 
is  directly  opposite  to  that  of  the  head.  (2)  Sound  is  of  maxi¬ 
mum  intensity  immediately  as  it  reaches  the  means.  (3)  The  tone 
is  richer  and  fuller  than  at  any  other  position,  possibly  due  to  the 
addition  of  overtones  and  the  marked  increase  in  intensity. 

(4)  The  phantom  moves  more  swiftly  (than  in  the  loop)  from 
left  to  right  or  vice  versa;  i.e.,  from  one  ear  into  the  other. 

(5)  Confusion  tones  are  very  prominent  and  tend  greatly  to 
hinder  localization. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  points  of  maximum  amplitude  occur 
at  each  one-half  wave  length,  and  the  points  of  minimum  ampli¬ 
tude  are  midway  between  these.  More  specifically,  with  the  re¬ 
ceivers  at  three  wave  lengths  apart,  a  maximum  point  appears 
exactly  in  the  middle  with  similar  points  each  half  wave  length  on 
either  side  and  the  minimum  points  alternate  with  these.  This  is 
seen  most  clearly  in  Case  C,  Fig.  1. 

By  shutting  off  one  ear  from  the  sound  and  moving  the  head 
to  and  fro  between  the  receivers  (the  side  of  the  head  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  receivers)  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  ascertain 
points  of  maximum  intensity  and  points  of  minimum  intensity. 
A  tone,  682  d.v.,  at  90°  Fahrenheit  has  a  wave  length  of  51.5  cm. 
Hence  for  every  25.7  cm.  we  may  look  for  a  maximum  and,  mid¬ 
way  between  these,  a  minimum.  Averaging  the  results  of  twenty- 
five  trials  for  each  of  two  observers,  we  have  the  following : 

1.  Maxima  at  129.2,  102.7,  76.9,  51.7,  25.7  cm.;  or  a  maxi¬ 
mum  for  each  25.8  cm. 

2.  Minima  at  116.4,  90.0,  64.5,  38.6  cm.;  or  a  minimum  al¬ 
most  midway  between  the  successive  maxima. 

In  the  various  cases  of  Fig.  2  the  distance  from  receiver  to 
receiver  is  154.6  cm.  Midway  between  the  receivers,  76.6  cm., 
(0.6  cm.  from  the  middle  point)  is  the  maximum  point  X4  which 

corresponds  with  our  observations  and  coincides  also  with  the 


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ii 


disturbance  point  y4  of  the  standing  wave.  In  the  same  way  it 
may  be  shown  that  all  our  results  correspond  quite  exactly  with 
the  conditions  of  the  standing  wave.  It  seems  clear,  then,  that 
there  are  points  of  interference  in  the  plane  extending  between 
the  receivers  and  that  between  these  points  are  other  points  of 
reinforcement. 

Having  established  that  points  of  maximum  and  minimum  in¬ 
tensity  persist  in  regular  sequence  between  the  receivers,  it  re¬ 
mains  to  determine  the  empirical  curve  for  flux  in  intensity  over 
the  same  course.  Case  B,  Fig.  2,  represents  the  ideal  curve  for 


Fig.  2. — A  maxima  and  minima  in  relation  to  loops  and  nodes ;  B,  the 
effect  of  interference  on  intensity;  C,  the  effect  of  distance  on  intensity;  D, 
combination  of  D  and  C ;  E,  the  course  of  the  phantoms  through  loops  and 
nodes,  the  relative  size  of  the  head  indicated  by  the  circle. 


12 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


relative  intensity  (relative  intensity  in  this  case  meaning  inten¬ 
sity  resulting  from  the  fusion  of  two  tones,  one  from  each  re¬ 
ceiver)  between  the  receivers.  In  other  words,  the  ideal  curve 
is  one  in  which  the  minima  are  of  zero  intensity,  while  the 
maxima  are  quite  outstanding.  The  absolute  intensity  of  the 
sounds  from  the  receivers  is  ignored  in  this  curve.  Case  C 
shows  the  curve  for  absolute  intensity  as  determined  mathe¬ 
matically.  With  but  one  receiver  working,  its  sound  is  just 
audible  at  the  other  receiver.  The  vertical  lines  represent  the  in¬ 
tensity  at  one  point;  the  dotted  lines  represent  intensities  from 
the  opposite  sources,  which  are  quite  incapable  of  much  action 
due  to  the  overwhelming  intensity  of  the  near  receiver.  From 
our  observations  we  know  that  neither  Case  B  nor  Case  C  rep¬ 
resents  the  real  conditions  for  flux  in  intensity.  What  we  do  find 
is  the  intensity  represented  by  some  such  curve  as  Case  D,  the 
resultant  of  the  curves  for  relative  and  absolute  intensity.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  this  curve  there  are  at  least  three  very  distinct  loops; 
namely,  X3,  X4,  and  X5,  while  there  are  four  good  nodes,  y2,  y3, 
y4,  and  y5.  Our  observations  bear  this  out.  Trained  observers 
may  with  difficulty  localize  loops  x2  and  x6  also ;  the  absolute  in¬ 
tensity  at  these  points,  however,  precludes  accurate  observation. 
In  Case  D  the  relative  size  of  the  head  is  indicated  by  the  circle. 

Case  E  shows  schematically  the  survey  of  the  phantom  sound 
as  the  observer  passes  from  one  side  to  the  other.  This  will  be 
illustrated  in  more  detail  in  Fig.  3. 

The  phantom  at  the  loop 

The  path  of  the  phantom  about  the  head  is  illustrated  in  Fig. 
3.  The  observer  first  localized  a  loop  center  (median)  and  then 
moved  to  the  right,  progressing  by  steps  of  15  degrees  each,  call¬ 
ing  out  the  position  in  each  case  until  the  next  loop  center  was 
reached.  He  then  returned  to  the  left,  over  the  path  which  he 
had  come,  calling  out  the  position  as  before,  until  he  had  at¬ 
tained  the  position  of  the  first  loop  center.  This  procedure  was 
then  repeated.  The  numbers  written  below  the  diagram  are  those 
of  three  observers  and  represent  an  average  of  ten  trials  for  each 
at  each  position. 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


13 


Fig.  3. — The  course  of  the  phantom  through  its  cycles  in  one  wave  length; 
the  numbers  at  the  bottom  give  the  empirical  localization  of  the  phantom  at 
successive  15  degree  steps  by  each  of  three  independent  observers. 


For  instance,  if  the  observer  N  is  at  51  (o°  on  the  base  line 
at  the  extreme  left)  he  localizes  the  phantom  in  the  median  plane. 
In  this  case  we  represent  the  phantom  position  in  the  direction  of 
the  line  0-0.  Moving  the  head  to  the  position  on  the  base  indi¬ 
cated  by  150  R  (53  cm.)  the  phantom  has  now  moved  150  to 
the  right  and  is  in  the  direction  of  the  line  15-15.  In  this  man¬ 
ner  it  is  possible  to  pass  along  the  base  line  and  tell  just  how 
localization  holds  at  any  given  point.  Thus,  by  the  time  observer 
N  has  moved  to  59  the  phantom  has  passed  down  to  the  ear  level 
and  remains  somewhere  in  the  region  of  that  ear  (right)  until 
he  reaches  67  about  the  63  cm.  point  when  it  shifts  to  the  left 
ear.  From  here  it  moves  around  the  head  until  at  75  it  has  re¬ 
turned  to  the  median  plane,  a  position  exactly  similar  to  the  one 
from  which  he  started.  The  ground  covered  represents  just  one- 
half  wave  length;  the  remaining  one-half  wave  length  shown  in 
the  figure  takes  the  observer  through  another  localization  tour 
similar  to  the  one  described. 

By  applying  the  principle  here  involved  the  movement  of  the 
phantom  across  the  entire  space  separating  the  receivers  may  be 
definitely  and  accurately  predicted  and  represented,  as  in  Case  E, 


i4  HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 

Fig.  2,  when  three  wave  lengths  separate  the  sources.  The  loops 
occur  at  the  x's  and  the  nodes  at  the  y’s.  By  passing  the  eyes 
up  to  Case  C,  Fig.  2,  the  exact  relation  between  loops  and  nodes 
with  maxima  and  minima  may  be  readily  determined.  Their 
relation  to  the  standing  wave  may  be  ascertained  by  sighting  up 
to  Case  A,  Fig.  2. 


The  phantom  at  the  node 

When  the  head  first  approaches  the  position  of  a  node  the 
phantom  sound  has  reached  a  position  just  opposite  the  ear  to¬ 
ward  which  the  observer  is  moving  (90°  from  the  median  plane). 
At  this  point  no  sound  is  audible  at  the  other  ear. 

However,  if  the  head  is  moved  farther  along,  a  position  is  soon 
reached  where  the  sound  is  audible  in  both  ears.  At  this  point 
the  observer  balances  or  weighs  one  sound  against  the  other. 
There  is  no  fusion  of  sound  at  this  point  nor  at  any  other  point 
within  the  node.  This  is  the  center  of  the  node. 

Let  the  observer  now  move  his  head  still  farther  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  in  which  he  has  been  moving  and  he  will  come  to  a  position 
where  the  sound  is  inaudible  at  the  first  ear  but  beats  with  con¬ 
siderable  force  upon  the  second  ear. 

The  entire  distance  covered  during  the  shift  just  described 
(the  node)  is  of  some  extent.  Observations  on  the  two  most 
favorable  nodes  (those  nearest  the  center  of  the  field)  reveal  the 
following  facts  as  given  by  the  writer’s  introspection  for  one 
“round  trip”  of  the  phantom. 

The  width  of  the  node  averages  7.1  cm  (682  d.v.  tone).  Just 
when  the  sound  becomes  audible  in  the  second  ear  is  difficult  of 
observation.  Its  growth  in  intensity  at  that  ear  is  imperceptible 
at  first  due  to  the  strong  intensity  at  the  first  ear.  The  quality, 
intensity,  and  extensity  of  the  tone  at  the  node  differ  so  greatly 
from  the  phantom  tone  at  the  loop  that  for  the  trained  observer 
there  is  no  mistaking  one  for  the  other.  The  tone  at  the  node  is 
like  the  blast  of  a  tiny  steam  whistle  immediately  outside  the  ear, 
or  ears,  while  the  phantom  tone  elsewhere  resembles  a  pure  sub¬ 
dued  tone  of  a  moving  receiver.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
median  localization  at  a  node.  The  thing  we  do  is  to  maintain 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


15 


an  equilibrium  of  the  two  sounds  as  described  above.  Starting 
at  the  loop  center,  the  phantom  is  high  up  and  far  away — 6o° 
up  front.  Upon  moving  to  the  right  the  phantom  also  moves  to 
the  right,  but  down  toward  the  source  at  that  side.  When  the 
phantom  has  reached  45 0  right,  it  has  not  changed  in  quality  or 
size  or  strength.  From  now  on  until  the  time  when  the  phantom 
reaches  the  ear  level  it  changes  greatly  in  quality.  It  seems  quite 
as  though  a  second  sound  were  reinforcing  the  phantom  so  that 
the  latter  now  appears  to  be  growing  in  size  and  strength.  At 
6o°  it  is  stronger  and  larger.  At  75  °,  although  it  has  position,  it 
has  no  definite  outline  or  size  and  is  beginning  to  ‘‘ring.'*  It  has 
not  attained  great  strength.  From  60 0  or  70°  down  to  90°  (de¬ 
pending  upon  the  absolute  intensity)  I  am  not  so  sure  that  the 
phantom  is  all  phantom.  I  have  the  feeling  that,  as  the  phantom 
passes  the  45 0  point,  another  sound  of  the  same  pitch  combines 
and  possibly  interferes  with  it  with  increasing  insistency  until 
upon  its  reaching  the  90°  point  the  phantom  is  completely  over¬ 
whelmed  by  the  second  sound.  As  the  head  is  moved  on,  this 
sound  predominates  until,  presently,  a  third  sound,  at  first  faint, 
is  heard  at  the  left  ear.  This  sound  increases  rapidly  in  inten- 
.  sity  until  it  equals  the  second  sound  and  then  finally  surpasses  it. 
At  this  instant  the  sound  is  stronger  in  the  left  ear;  but,  in  its 
passing  from  one  ear  to  the  other,  I  am  not  conscious  of  change 
in  localization;  only  a  shift  in  intensity  occurs.  The  sound  at 
the  left  (90°  L)  soon  becomes  the  only  audible  source;  and,  af¬ 
ter  a  short  period,  I  can  detect  in  this  mass  or  jumble  of  sound 
the  phantom  at,  or  near,  75°  left.  It  is,  however,  not  the  perfect 
phantom  we  started  with.  It  resembles  the  phantom  at  75 0  right. 
From  now  on  until  the  phantom  attains  the  45 0  point,  this  sound 
at  the  left  ear  adheres  to  the  phantom,  surrounding  it,  as  it  were, 
with  a  fringe  which  gradually  recedes  toward  the  center  or  phan¬ 
tom  proper  until  the  latter  emerges  at  45 0  left.  From  this  point 
until  the  phantom  reaches  the  loop  center  it  undergoes  no  change 
in  size,  quality,  or  other  feature. 


i6 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


Relative  intensity  for  each  unit  field 

Within  the  field  of  localization  each  one-half  wave  length  may 
be  looked  upon  as  a  unit  localization  field;  for,  within  certain 
limits,  each  successive  one-half  wave  length  approximates  an 
exact  duplicate  of  the  preceding  one-half  wave  length.  A  study 
of  one  of  these  units  should  reveal  the  general  characteristics  of 
each  unit  field;  and,  incidentally,  that  of  the  entire  field  of  locali¬ 
zation.  We  shall  arbitrarily  set  as  the  limits  of  this  unit  any 
two  adjacent  loop  centers  (x’s),  the  mid-point  being  the  node 
between  them.  The  present  results  are  obtained  wholly  from 
binaural  hearing  while  the  intensity  observations  spoken  of  be¬ 
fore  (cases  B  and  C,  Fig.  2)  were  obtained  monaurally.  The 
binaural  report  corroborates  and  strengthens  our  monaural  in¬ 
tensity  observations. 

Method  A. — The  procedure  was  as  follows :  The  observer  was 
asked  to  find  a  point  where  the  intensity  was  weakest.  When 
this  point  had  been  established  (ten  trials)  he  was  asked  to  move 
his  head  slowly  to  the  right  (retracing  his  steps  as  often  as  ex¬ 
pedient)  stopping  at  the  following  points  in  order:  (1)  where 
the  first  notable  increase  in  intensity  occurs;  (2)  the  point  where 
there  is  no  perceptible  increase  in  intensity;  (3)  the  point  just 
preceding  that  where  the  intensity  begins  to  wane;  (4)  the  point 
where  there  is  no  apparent  further  diminution  of  intensity;  and 
(5)  the  center  of  the  minimum  intensity  point. 

During  the  procedure  the  observer  was  cautioned  to  neglect 
localization  and  focus  the  entire  attention  on  intensity.  As  a  mat¬ 
ter  of  fact  it  is  quite  impossible  to  ignore  localization  altogether, 
but  the  experimenter  is  convinced  that  localization  did  not  inter¬ 
fere  seriously  with  the  judgments.  A  later  experiment  confirmed 
this  conviction. 

The  data  obtained  from  two  adjacent  unit  fields  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows: 

1.  There  is  on  each  side  of  the  loop  center  a  distance  of  4.2 
centimeters  within  which  the  sound  is  of  minimum  intensitv. 

2.  Midway  between  the  loops  (at  the  nodes)  is  another 
“stretch”  averaging  6.7  cm.  in  which  the  intensity  is  at  a  maxi¬ 
mum  and  fairly  constant  although  the  bulk  of  it  shifts  from  one 
ear  to  the  other. 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


17 


3.  Between  these  positions  are  short  stretches,  averaging  4.7 
cm.,  within  which  the  intensity  rapidly  increases  or  diminishes, 
depending,  of  course,  upon  the  direction  of  the  movement  of  the 
observer’s  head. 

These  results  are  based  on  the  figures  obtained  from  three 
trained  observers,  H,  K,  and  N.  In  finding  the  length  of  the 
stretches  for  both  maxima  and  minima  two  positions  were  used 
in  each  instance.  Four  stretches  were  observed  in  obtaining  the 
extent  of  the  intensity  transition  positions. 

One  of  the  principal  reasons  for  performing  this  experiment 
was  to  ascertain  whether  the  minima  and  maxima  are  distinct 
“points”  or  whether  they  appear  more  as  “stretches.”  The  re¬ 
sults  indicate  that  the  latter  is  the  case.  The  fact  that  transitions 
in  intensity  take  place  quickly  with  slight  movements  of  the  head 
is  upheld  in  monaural  hearing.  The  increase  in  intensity  usu¬ 
ally  occurs  while  the  phantom  is  passing  from  45 0  L  or  R  down 
to  90°.  The  diminution  in  intensity  accompanies  the  opposite 
movement  of  the  phantom  over  the  same  ground.  All  observers 
find  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  see  if  they  can  withdraw  just  a 
little  farther  away  from  the  critical  point  and  still  maintain  that 
same  intensity. 

The  figures  in  Table  I  represent  fairly  the  two  unit  fields  as 
observed  by  three  different  people.  The  same  data  are  graphi¬ 
cally  represented  in  A  and  B,  Fig.  4. 


50  52.  54  Sb  08  60  <3'd  64  bo  08  70  70  74  74  7g  73  30  32  64  88  as  90  9Z  1m  ;58  fOO 

Fig.  4. — Variations  in  intensity  of  the  phantom ;  A-B,  as  observed  intro 
spectively;  C-D,  as  measured  by  the  audiometer. 


Method  B. — This  consisted  of  a  series  of  judgments  on  paired 
intensities  in  which  the  intensity  at  prearranged  positions  was 
successively  compared  with  the  standard  intensity  at  a  particular 
point.  A  Seashore  audiometer  was  inserted  into  the  telephone 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


1 8 


Table  I. — Intensity  limits  as  observed 


Minimum 

Minimum 

Width  of 

Minimum 

Minimum 

Center 

Limit 

Maximum 

Limit 

Center 

E 

514 

54-1 

60.5  —  68.8 

71.9 

75-2 

K 

51.0 

52.5 

62.0  —  66. 9 

71.0 

75-6 

H 

50.3 

544 

60  —  67.2 

71.9 

754 

E 

75-2 

83.0 

84.3  —  92.8 

96.5 

101.8 

K 

75-6 

777 

86.15  —  92.0 

96.2 

99.1 

H 

754 

81.7 

8495  —  90.6 

93-3 

98.8 

circuit  which  permitted  the  experimenter  to  control  the  intensity 
of  the  sound  at  will.  The  procedure  in  brief  was  as  follows: 
The  observer  took  his  position  at  74  of  the  centimeter  scale, 
which  is  one  of  the  weakest  intensity  points  binaurally,  and  the 
standard  intensity  (36  of  the  audiometer)  was  sounded  twice  for 
a  space  of  two  seconds  each,  with  a  second's  interval  between. 
Then,  as  quickly  as  expedient,  the  observer  assumed  a  second, 
pre-arranged,  position,  and  the  standard  intensity  was  again 
sounded  in  the  same  manner,  following  which  the  observer  passed 
judgment  as  to  whether  the  sound  at  the  second  position  was 
stronger,  weaker,  or  equal  to  the  sound  heard  at  74 — the  object 
being  to  find  what  intensity  at  the  second  position,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  observer,  is  equal  to  the  standard  intensity  at  74.  There 
were  twenty-five  positions  at  which  intensities  were  compared 
with  that  of  the  standard  at  74.  In  experimenting  the  points 
were  taken  at  random,  no  two  adjacent  positions  being  taken  in 
succession.  These  points,  with  their  corresponding  audiometer 
steps,  are  shown  in  Table  II,  and  C-D,  Fig.  4.  The  figures  for 

Table  II. — Intensities  as  measured  with  the  audiometer 

Position  50  52  54  56  58  60  62  64  66  68  70  72 

Observer 

E  33.4  32.2  32.3  31.3  31-2  3 1. 1  30.2  32.4  32.5  32.9  337  34-4 

K  33.6  30.8  30.7  29.8  29.8  29.4  29.7  30.5  31.7  32.1  33.2  35.5 

H  3i-3  30-6  31-8  297  30.2  30.1  30.5  30.5  30.5  32.5  34.1  34.9 

Average  32.8  31.2  31.6  30.3  30.4  30.2  30.1  31.1  316  32.5  33.7  34.9 

76  78  80  82  84  86  88  90  92  94  96  98  100 

34.4  32.7  31.5  31-6  33-2  32.9  32.3  33-8  32.8  33.2  33.6  33.4  35-1 
32.6  31.7  30.4  29.5  28.8  29.8  29.8  29.9  30.7  30.6  31.7  31-3  31-4 

34-5  32.8  31-6  31-5  30-4  30-Q  29.0  29.0  29.8  305  3i-4  3*-8  31-5 

33-8  32.4  312  30.9  3i-2  31-0  307  307  3i  i  3i4  32.2  32.2  327 

each  observer  represent  an  average  of  ten  judgments  at  each  po¬ 
sition.  These  may  be  compared  with  the  averages  of  the  three 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


19 


observers  at  each  position.  The  intensity  at  position  74  is  not 
indicated  in  the  table  as  it  was  used  as  standard. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  matter  of  interpretation  of  the  fig¬ 
ures.  The  standard  intensity  (36)  was  the  strongest  intensity 
used.  At  no  other  position,  according  to  the  data,  is  it  necessary 
to  use  as  high  a  step  as  36  to  equal  in  intensity  the  standard  at 
position  74.  Hence,  the  lower  the  figures  at  any  position  the  less 
the  intensity  required  at  that  position  to  equal  the  standard  in¬ 
tensity  at  74.  In  a  wider  sense  this  means  that,  under  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  open  air  wave  phase  localization,  those  positions  which 
are  here  represented  by  the  lower  figures  are  stronger  in  intensity 
than  positions  represented  by  higher  figures. 

Results. —  (1)  For  each  wave  length  there  are  two  points  where 
the  intensity  is  comparatively  weak,  and  two  other  points  where 
it  is  strong.  (2)  The  weak  intensity  points  coincide  with  the 
loop  centers,  the  strong  with  the  nodes.  (3)  Empirically,  there 
is  a  fairly  speedy  transition  from  the  strong  to  the  weak  intensity 
points,  which,  to  the  observer,  appears  to  take  place  even  more 
quickly.  (Note  Fig.  4.)  (4)  The  strong  intensity  points  rep¬ 

resent  longer  stretches  than  the  weak  points.  (5)  The  data  show 
a  close  agreement  between  the  results  as  obtained  by  direct  ob¬ 
servation  and  by  the  audiometer.  (6)  It  is  probable  that  (a) 
minima  appear  to  be  greater  stretches  to  the  observer  than  they 
are  in  fact;  (b)  maxima  are  greater  stretches  than  they  appear  to 
the  observer,  although  not  so  regular;  and  (c)  transition  stretches 
in  intensity  from  weak  to  strong,  and  vice  versa,  are  not  as  short 
as  they  appear  to  the  observer. 

Table  III. — Variation  in  nodes  and  loops  with  pitch 


Frequency 

Loop 

Node 

Loop 

Node 

Loop 

Node 

Loop 

930  d.v. 

62.0 

73-0 

81.5 

90.0 

100.5 

III.O 

1 19.0 

682  d.v. 

50.9 

63.1 

76.0 

88.5 

100.3 

114.0 

126.7 

169.4 

402  d.v. 

43-8 

63-31 

85.1 

109.3 

126.5 

147.8 

1  Observer  experienced  both  loop  and  node  in  this  instance. 

The  average  distances  from  loop  to  node  for  the  frequencies 
used  are:  for  930  d.v.,  9.5  cm.;  for  682  d.v.,  12.6;  and  for  402 
d.v.,  20.9  cm. 

In  gradual  raising  or  lowering  of  the  pitch  no  change  in  the 
median  localization  of  phantom  takes  place  if  the  head  is  held 


20 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


steadily  at  the  mid-point  between  the  receivers;  but,  when  the 
observer’s  head  is  placed  to  one  side  of  the  mid-point  of  the  re¬ 
ceivers,  a  series  of  loops  and  nodes  will  pass  the  observer’s  head 
moving  toward  the  mid-point  if  the  pitch  of  the  tone  is  gradu¬ 
ally  raised,  and  the  same  series  will  pass  the  head  moving  in  the 
opposite  direction  if  the  pitch  is  lowered. 

The  movement  of  the  phantom,  loops,  etc.,  may  be  observed  by 
two  methods.  The  observer  may  localize  one  of  the  loop  centers 
when  the  tone  is  of  a  comparatively  low  pitch,  and  then,  as  the 
pitch  is  raised,  move  toward  the  mid-point  of  the  field  in  order 
to  maintain  that  median  localization  of  the  moving  phantom. 
When  the  pitch  is  lowered  he  will  proceed  in  the  opposite  direc¬ 
tion.  Or,  the  observer  may  localize  a  given  loop  center,  as  above, 
and  then,  as  the  pitch  is  changed,  maintain  this  position  through¬ 
out,  the  object  being  to  note  the  number  and  direction  of  the 
movements  of  the  phantoms  which  come  within  his  range.  The 
observer  in  this  instance  should  keep  in  mind  that  the  phantom 
always  moves  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  movement  of  the 
loops  and  nodes. 

If  the  tone  from  one  receiver  is  made  to  differ  in  pitch  from 
the  tone  of  the  other  receiver  by  one  double  vibration  per  second, 
a  series  of  loops  and  nodes  will  pass  the  observer  at  the  rate  of  a 
loop  and  a  node  per  second.  If  the  difference  in  pitch  is  in¬ 
creased  the  rate  at  which  the  loops  and  nodes  pass  will  be  cor¬ 
respondingly  increased.  If  the  pitch  is  lowered,  the  rate  will  be 
slower.  This  experiment  may  be  observed  by  holding  tuning 
forks  of  slightly  different  pitch  one  to  each  ear. 

Effect  of  direction  of  the  current 

It  often  becomes  necessary  to  disconnect  the  parts  of  the  ap¬ 
paratus  to  meet  the  various  conditions  of  experimentation.  So 
it  came  about  that  one  day,  much  to  the  surprise  of  the  experi¬ 
menter,  it  was  discovered  that  the  observer  was  localizing  loops 
in  the  approximate  position  in  which  nodes  usually  obtained,  and 
that  the  nodes  had  taken  possession  of  the  loop  points.  In  other 
words,  the  positions  of  the  loops  and  nodes  were  exactly  reversed. 

The  receivers,  up  to  this  time,  had  always  been  connected  in 


i 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


21 


series  with  the  generator.  The  terminals  of  each  wire  had  been 
labelled  so  that  in  re-connecting  everything  might  be  in  place. 
Upon  tracing  out  the  connections,  therefore,  it  was  found  that 
the  position  of  the  terminals  of  two  wires  had  been  reversed.  As 
previously  arranged,  the  alternations  in  the  current  producing  the 
tone  so  affected  the  receivers  as  to  cause  simultaneous  magnetiza¬ 
tions  of  the  receivers  at  one  instant,  followed  by  simultaneous 
demagnetizations  the  next:  the  diaphragms  of  the  two  receivers 
*  were  at  one  instant  moving  simultaneously  toward  the  magnets 
and  at  the  next  instant  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  result  of 
the  propagation  of  sound  waves  from  the  receivers  under  these 
conditions  is  a  standing  wave  as  represented  in  Fig.  i.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  reversal  of  the  current  in  one  receiver  results  in 
a  magnetization  in  one  receiver  simultaneously  with  a  demagneti¬ 
zation  in  the  other  receiver :  therefore  a  crest  of  the  sound  wave 
emanates  from  one  source  at  the  very  instant  that  a  valley  issues 
from  the  other,  and  corresponding  points  in  the  standing  waves 
are  exactly  one-fourth  of  a  wave  length  removed;  i.e.,  maxima 
exist  where  minima  formerly  existed  and  vice  versa. 

In  order  that  future  experimentation  might  not  be  handicapped 
by  recurrences  of  this  nature,  observations  were  made  on  the 
positions  of  maxima  and  minima  of  intensity  in  all  the  possible 
conditions  under  which  they  exist.  These  may  be  listed  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  ( i )  receivers  in  series,  magnetizations  in  both  receivers  oc¬ 
curring  simultaneously;  (2)  receivers  in  parallel,  magnetization  in 
both  receivers  occurring  simultaneously;  (3)  receivers  in  series, 
simultaneous  magnetization  of  one  receiver  with  demagnetization 
of  the  other;  (4)  receivers  in  parallel,  simultaneous  magnetiza¬ 
tion  of  one  receiver  with  demagnetization  of  the  other. 

These  experiments  warrant  the  following  conclusions :  In 
cases  (1)  and  (2)  above,  maxima  obtain  at  the  positions  where 
in  cases  (3)  and  (4)  minima  obtain:  and,  conversely,  in  cases 
(1)  and  (2)  minima  obtain  at  the  positions  of  maxima  in  cases 
(3)  and  (4).  In  cases  (1)  and  (2)  the  series  of  maxima  and 
minima  appear  in  order  in  the  line  of  the  sounds,  with  a  maxi¬ 
mum  always  at  midfield;  while  in  cases  (3)  and  (4)  we  find  a 
like  series  with  the  exception  that  a  minimum  holds  the  midfield 
position. 


22 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


As  regards  intensity,  in  binaural  hearing,  the  loops  experienced 
in  cases  (i)  and  (2)  at  positions  102,  76,  51,  and  others,  are  re¬ 
placed  in  cases  (3)  and  (4)  by  nodes;  while,  in  like  manner  the 
nodes  of  (1)  and  (2)  at  116,  90,  and  65  are  replaced  by  loops  in 
cases  (3)  and  (4).  These  are,  of  course,  matters  of  common 
sense  and  should  have  been  taken  into  account  in  the  original 
use  of  revisions  for  this  present  purpose. 

Variation  in  absolute  intensity  of  the  sources 

'  Experiments  were  made  with  three  different  intensities  dis¬ 
tinguished  roughly  as  strong,  medium,  weak. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  tone  of  strong  intensity  a  current  of  2.4 
volts  was  introduced  into  the  circuit  of  the  electro-magnet  of  the 
generator,  and  for  the  medium  intensity  0.8  volts.  The  tone  of 
weak  intensity  was  obtained  by  running  the  generator  without 
any  re-enforcement  of  its  electro-magnet.  In  all  cases  the  dis¬ 
tance  between  the  sources  was  three  wave  lengths,  pitch  682  d.v. 
The  results  of  the  observations  may  be  summarized  in  the  state¬ 
ment  that  these  marked  differences  in  intensity  had  but  slight 
effect  upon  precision  in  locating  the  loops :  but  there  was  a  marked 
tendency  to  confuse  at  the  nodes,  for  these  extreme  intensities. 
The  nodes  “widen  out”  upon  conditions  of  great  intensity  and 
“narrow  down”  when  using  sounds  of  weak  intensity. 

For  most  observers  the  intensity  produced  by  the  introduction 
of  one  Edison  cell  (0.8  volts)  in  circuit  with  the  electro-magnet 
of  the  generator  is  conducive  to  the  best  results  in  localization. 
It  is  with  this  “set  up”  that  most  of  the  observations  have  been 
obtained. 


Difference  in  intensity  of  the  tzvo  sources 

By  introducing  the  necessary  resistance  into  the  circuit  of  one 
of  the  receivers,  the  absolute  intensity  may  be  so  reduced  that  the 
observer  can  barely  distinguish  the  sound  at  midway.  Few  ob¬ 
servations  have  been  made  under  these  conditions,  but  good  ob¬ 
servers  may  still  distinguish  the  loops  and  nodes  with  precision. 

The  experiment  was  tried  of  reducing  the  intensity  of  one  of 
the  sources  while  the  other  was  kept  constant.  With  the  sources 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


23 


three  wave  lengths  apart  no  changes  in  localization  were  notice¬ 
able.  There  was,  however,  a  limit  to  which  the  intensity  of  the 
one  could  be  reduced  without  losing  its  valence  on  localization. 
Hence  this  mode  of  procedure  was  discontinued. 

In  another  procedure,  the  intensity  of  the  sources  was  reduced 
to  a  point  feasible  to  work  with  at  close  range  and  the  observer 
was  requested  to  press  the  receivers  securely  against  the  ears  and 
localize  the  phantom.  He  was  then  asked  to  note  carefully  what 
change,  if  any,  took  place  in  the  position  of  the  phantom  when 
the  intensity  of  the  source  (the  left  receiver)  was  reduced,  the 
other  remaining  constant. 

The  effects  of  varying  the  intensity  of  one  source  are  as  fol¬ 
lows:  (1)  With  the  phantom  localized  in  the  median  plane  to 
start  with,  reducing  the  intensity  of  the  left  receiver  causes  the 
phantom  to  move  slowly  but  with  a  sweeping  motion  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  right  ear;  when  the  reduction  of  the  sound  at  the  left 
ear  has  reached  a  certain  stage  the  phantom  has  disappeared  and 
only  the  sound  at  the  right  is  audible.  If  now,  the  intensity  of 
the  left  source  be  increased  until  it  equals  that  of  the  right  source, 
the  phantom  slowly  moves  from  the  right  ear  back  to  its  original 
position  in  the  median  plane.  (2)  The  observer  is  not  at  all 
aware  of  the  diminishing  intensity  at  the  one  receiver.  The  effect 
of  this  reduction  in  intensity  is  such  as  to  draw  the  observer’s 
attention  to  the  seemingly  increasing  intensity  at  the  right  ear. 
(3)  The  movement  of  the  phantom  from  the  median  plane  to¬ 
ward  the  right  ear  is  accompanied  by  a  change  in  the  quality  of 
the  tone :  from  an  approximately  pure  tone  the  sound  becomes 
gradually  more  and  more  complex  until  the  entire  sound  is  en¬ 
camped  at  the  right  ear.  (4)  The  phantom  loses  its  clearness 
rapidly  when  the  intensity  at  the  one  ear  is  reduced.1 

The  experiment  was  repeated  with  the  sources  one-half  wave 
length  apart  (25  cm.) ;  i.e.,  the  sources  were  about  five  centi¬ 
meters  distant  from  the  ears.  The  results  were  identical  with 
those  stated  above. 

1  The  writer’s  subsequent  experiments  (see  footnote  page  9)  indicate  that 
this  movement  under  the  variation  of  intensity  may  be  discontinuous. 


24 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


Relation  of  distance  to  loudness 

A  study  of  the  effect  of  distance  upon  intensity  was  made 
under  two  conditions :  ( i )  when  the  sources  were  very  close  to¬ 

gether, — two  wave  lengths  (approximately  ioo  cm.)  apart;  and 
(2)  when  the  sources  were  far  apart, — five  wave  lengths  (250 
cm.)  apart.  The  sound  was  comparatively  loud,  there  being  1.6 
volts  in  circuit  with  the  magnet,  when  as  in  the  standard  pro¬ 
cedure  we  used  only  .8  volts.  This  study  led  to  the  following 
conclusions : 

A.  Sources  two  wave  lengths  apart. — The  absolute  intensity 
of  the  sound  is  a  strong  factor  binaurally.  Localization  of  the 
phantom  at  the  loop  is  easily  observable  but  only  within  sixty 
degrees  each  side  of  the  median  plane.  The  intensity  of  the 
phantom  sound  at  the  loops  is  an  outstanding  feature.  The  phan¬ 
tom  is  very  clear  in  spite  of  its  great  intensity.  It  is  the  opinion 
of  the  observers  that  it  is  both  “brighter”  and  larger  than  for 
weaker  intensity.  Monaurally  the  maxima  and  minima  of  in¬ 
tensity  are  difficult  of  location.  The  absolute  intensity  “fills  in” 
the  minimal  points  so  that  they  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
maxima.  Careful  observation,  however,  will  disclose  at  least  two 
minima. 

B.  Sources  five  wave  lengths  apart. — Absolute  intensity  is  not 
so  important  a  factor  binaurally  with  this  distance.  Relative  in¬ 
tensity  as  represented  by  maxima  and  minima  is  very  prominent. 
The  phantom  is  easily  observable,  more  so  in  some  loops  than  in 
the  nodes.  The  phantom  is  of  weak  intensity.  While  it  is  clear 
and  distinct,  it  is  not  as  “bright”  as  at  three  wave  lengths  dis¬ 
tance,  yet,  practically,  it  is  as  easily  localized  because  of  its  defi¬ 
nition.  Monaurally,  the  maxima  and  minima  are  more  easily 
localized  than  at  three  wave  lengths,  but  there  are  certain  maxima 
and  minima  which  do  not  stand  out  as  clearly  as  others. 

Effect  of  moving  one  source 

First  Method. — The  observer  found  a  loop  center  and  main¬ 
tained  this  position  throughout  the  experiment.  When  the  right 
receiver  (R)  was  moved  outward  away  from  the  observer  the 
phantom  was  observed  to  move  from  its  median  position  toward 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


25 


the  left  of  the  observer  until  it  reached  the  position  at  90°  L. 
Soon  a  sound  was  heard  at  90°  R.  and  then  the  phantom  slowly 
mounted  from  this  position,  moving  up  the  right  side  of  the  head, 
until  it  reached  the  median  position.  As  the  phantom  reached  the 
positions  45 0  L,  90°  L,  90°  R,  45 0  R,  and  median,  the  observer 
called  them  out  and  the  experimenter  recorded  the  position  of  R 
(receiver)  in  each  case.  Ten  trials  were  taken  at  each  position. 
After  the  receiver  had  reached  its  outmost  position  the  experi¬ 
menter  reversed  the  procedure  by  moving  the  receiver  back  slowly 
to  its  original  position  at  151.6,  the  observer  calling  out  the  po¬ 
sitions  as  before,  only  in  reverse  order. 

Second  method. — The  observer  moved  his  head  simultaneously 
with  that  of  the  receiver,  with  the  end  in  view  of  keeping  the 
phantom  always  in  the  median  plane  (loop  center).  As  the  re¬ 
ceiver  was  moved  away  from  the  observer  to  the  right,  it  was 
noticed  that  he  moved  slowly  in  the  same  direction.  When  the 
receiver  was  moved  in  toward  the  observer,  he  retreated  before  it. 
Records  of  the  positions  of  the  observer’s  head  were  taken  only 
at  positions  where  he  formerly  recorded  45 0  L,  90°  L,  90°  R, 
and  o°. 

Third  method. — Both  receivers  were  simultaneously  moved  a 
distance  of  one  wave  length  and  at  the  same  rate  away  from  and 
then  toward,  the  observer. 

Fourth  method. — With  the  observer’s  head  fixed,  both  receiv¬ 
ers  were  now  moved  simultaneously  in  the  same  direction,  the 
distance  between  them  remaining  the  same  throughout.  As  the 
receivers  were  moved  in  one  direction,  the  observer  reported  that 
the  phantom  moved  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  results  may  be  summed  up  as  follows :  ( 1 )  The  phantom 

makes  one  complete  revolution  about  the  head  with  each  whole 
wave  length  change  in  the  position  of  one  receiver.  (2)  The 
phantom  behaves  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  when  the  head 
is  moved.  (3)  There  is  no  change  in  the  character  of  the  loops 
and  nodes,  nor  in  the  movement  of  the  phantom  under  any  of 
these  conditions.  (4)  The  phantom  moves  in  a  direction  oppo¬ 
site  to  the  receiver.  The  records  show  that  as  the  receiver  is 
moved  to  the  right  the  phantom  moves  to  the  left,  and  vice  versa. 


26 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


(5)  All  loop  centers  move  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the 
receiver  but  at  only  half  its  speed.  (6)  The  results  obtained  by 
moving  the  receiver  through  a  distance  of  one  wave  length  are 
precisely  the  same  as  obtain  upon  moving  the  head  (both  receiv¬ 
ers  fixed)  one-half  wave  length  distance.  (7)  Distance  apart  of 
the  receivers  does  not  affect  phase,  provided  both  receivers  are 
moved  simultaneously  and  at  the  same  rate  toward,  or  away 
from,  the  center  of  the  localization  field.  In  other  words,  when 
the  receivers  are  moved  away  from  the  center  of  the  field  no 
change  in  localization  occurs,  but  new  loops  and  nodes  are  added 
at  both  ends  of  the  field  as  rapidly  as  the  distance  will  permit. 
When  the  receivers  are  moved  in  toward  the  center  no  change 
in  localization  occurs  but  loops  and  nodes  are  clipped  off  at  both 
ends  of  the  field  as  the  receivers  near  the  center.  The  only  ob¬ 
servable  change  is  that  in  absolute  intensity  and  distinctness  of 
the  phantom.  (8)  Moving  both  receivers  simultaneously  in  the 
same  direction  for  a  given  distance,  the  observer’s  head  remain¬ 
ing  constant,  produces  the  same  changes  in  localization,  intensity, 
clearness,  and  confusion  as  does  moving  the  head  for  an  equal 
distance  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  receivers  remaining  con¬ 
stant. 


Localization  outside  of  the  line  of  the  receivers 

Changes  of  phase  may  be  observed  not  only  in  the  line  of  the 
receivers  but  anywhere  within  audible  distance  of  the  sources,  as 
long  as  the  conditions  of  the  standing  wave  obtain,  especially  in 
the  space  included  by  the  planes  of  the  receivers.  In  fact,  as  soon 
as  one  comes  within  clear,  audible  range  of  the  sound  he  is  im¬ 
pressed  with  the  phantom.  By  a  slight  adjustment  of  the  head, 
the  intensity  may  be  shifted  from  one  ear  to  the  other  and  in 
most  cases  the  shifting  of  the  phantom  sound  may  be  observed, 
although  the  exact  direction  of  its  movement  may  not  always  be 
perceived.  Yet  the  closer  one  approaches  the  line  of  the  receivers 
the  more  definite  and  clear  is  the  movement  of  the  phantom. 

Extended  evidence  on  the  movement  of  the  phantom  at  va¬ 
rious  positions  outside  of  the  line  of  the  receivers  is  lacking.  An 
attempt  to  secure  observations  at  points  four  and  one-half  feet 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


27 


below  the  sources  did  not  meet  with  much  success,  although  the 
figures  and  introspections  are  significant.  The  reflection  from 
the  floor,  about  five  feet  below  became  too  prominent.  Observer 
N  localized  medians  at  80.5  and  72.3  but  reported  that  they  ap¬ 
peared  to  resemble  both  the  node  and  the  loop.  The  movement 
of  the  phantom  at  these  points  was  exceedingly  rapid.  Observer 
H  also  met  with  difficulty.  He  reported  many  confusion  points, 
but  finally  localized  three  medians,  143.8,  133.4,  and  119.9. 
These  medians,  H  reported,  resembled  the  loop  centers,  except 
that  the  phantom  moved  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the 
head.  Some  of  them  are  like  nodes,  then,  as  far  as  the  movement 
of  the  phantom  is  concerned,  but  in  all  other  respects  they  favor 
the  loops. 


Timbre 

Timbre  plays  a  very  important  role  in  wave  phase  localization. 
Wave  phase  localization  is  more  difficult  with  noises  and  rich 
tones  than  with  pure  tones,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
main  median  localization.  A  possible  explanation  for  this  is 
that  the  purer  the  tone  the  more  prominent  and  clear  become 
the  maxima  and  minima. 

If  the  sound  to  be  localized  is  a  noise  the  conditions  necessary 
for  the  standing  wave  are  negative  and  no  maxima  and  minima 
obtain;  hence,  the  intensity  of  the  sound  at  any  particular  posi¬ 
tion  in  the  localization  field  simply  varies  inversely  as  the  square 
of  the  distance  from  the  sources.  Only  one  median  localization 
is  possible  with  a  noise.  Other  investigation  which  has  been  car¬ 
ried  on  at  length  in  this  laboratory  substantiates  this  view.  If 
the  sound  approximates  a  noise,  such  as  the  hum  of  an  electric 
motor,  in  which  one  or  more  tones  dominate,  a  median  localiza¬ 
tion  for  the  mass  noise  can  be  observed  as  well  as  median  localiza¬ 
tion  for  the  dominant  tones.  These  localizations  may  or  may 
not  coincide.  Besides  the  principal  median  localization  positions, 
there  are  other  positions  which  have  been  named  confusion 
points ;  these  turn  out  to  be  medians  of  the  dominant  over  tones. 

In  localization  with  a  rich  tone  maxima  and  minima  of  the 
fundamental  tone  are  set  up,  but  the  overtones  and  other  at- 


28 


HENRY  M.  HALVERSON 


tendant  tones  largely  destroy  the  effectiveness  of  these  by  their 
own  standing  waves.  The  pure  tone  offers  the  best  conditions 
for  wave  phase  localization. 

Phantoms  of  fundamentals  and  overtones 
Perhaps  one  of  the  most  significant  and  most  interesting  fea¬ 
tures  connected  with  wave  phase  is  simultaneous  double  or  triple 
localization  of  a  single  tone.  A  concrete  illustration  of  the  above 
came  to  the  attention  of  two  of  the  observers  while  experiment¬ 
ing  with  a  402  d.v.  tone.  Besides  the  regulation  loops  which  al¬ 
ways  attend  the  localization  of  this  tone,  an  extra  loop  was  ob¬ 
served  at  the  position  of  one  of  the  nodes.  This  loop  had  all  the 
characteristics  of  the  ordinary  loop  with  the  exception  of  clear¬ 
ness. 


Fig.  5. — A  schematic  representation  of  the  inter-relations  of  the  phantom  of 
the  fundamental  and  each  individual  overtone. 

Fig.  5  is  an  attempt  to  picture  the  manner  of  the  movements 
of  the  phantoms  of  the  fundamental,  the  first  and  the  second 
overtones  of  a  rich  tone.  Schematically  the  diagram  shows  that, 
under  perfect  conditions,  for  each  wave  length  (83.5  cm.)  of  the 
fundamental  tone  there  should  be  two  major  loops  of  the  funda¬ 
mental  tone,  four  loops  of  the  first  overtone,  and  six  loops  of  the 
second  overtone. 

Loop  centers  of  the  fundamental  and  overtones  coincide  at 
each  of  the  loop  centers  of  the  former.  At  no  other  positions  do 
all  the  overtone  phantoms  coincide.  The  size  of  the  loops  varies 
directly  as  the  wave  lengths  of  the  tones.  The  rate  of  movement 
of  the  phantoms  varies  inversely  as  the  wave  lengths  of  the  tones.1 

1  In  his  presentation  of  his  subsequent  experiments  (see  Ed.  Note  below) 
the  writer  has  been  able  further  to  substantiate  these  conclusions  by  showing 
quantitatively  the  simultaneous  course  of  the  phantoms  of  the  first  and 
second  partials  of  an  impure  tone. 


ROLE  OF  INTENSITY  IN  AUDITORY  WAVE  PHASE 


29 


The  present  article  here  comes  to  a  sudden  end  without  attempt  to  gener¬ 
alize  on  the  data  presented.  The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
author  transferred  to  another  university  where  he  is  pursuing  the  same  prob¬ 
lem  from  ithe  point  where  he  left  off.  The  author’s  manuscript  at  the  date 
when  submitted,  July  1920,  contained  chapters  on  that  subject,  but  it  has  been 
deemed  advisable  to  withhold  publication  of  them  until  certain  issues  which 
he  is  now  studying  have  been  verified.  We  shall  look  forward  with  anticipa¬ 
tion  to  some  contribution  toward  the  solution  of  the  perplexing  theoretical 
questions  which  are  involved  in  this  investigation.  The  Editor. 

As  this  monograph  goes  to  press  it  is  understood  that  the  principal  results 
of  these  subsequent  experiments  will  appear  under  the  title,  “Binaural  Locali¬ 
zation  of  Tones  as  Dependent  upon  Differences  of  Phase  and  Intensity,” 
Am.  Jour.  Psychol.,  vol.  32,  April  1922.  H.  M.  H. 


THE  INTENSITY  LOGARITHMIC  LAW  AND  THE 
DIFFERENCE  OF  PHASE  EFFECT  IN 
BINAURAL  AUDITION 

By 

G.  W.  Stewart 

Part  I:  The  intensity  logarithmic  law:  historical;  recent  measurements, 
values  of  K  and  lapses  in  intensity  effect ;  discussion ;  summary. 

Part  II :  The  difference  of  phase  effect:  apparatus;  quantitative  measure¬ 
ments  of  phase  effect;  frequency  limit  of  the  phase  effect;  discussion;  sum - 
mary. 


Part  I:  The  Intensity  Logarithmic  Law 

Historical.  There  have  been  many  experiments  concerning 
the  effects  of  intensity  difference  at  the  ears  upon  localization, 
but  until  recently  quantitative  measurements  have  not  been  em¬ 
ployed.  Hovda  and  the  author1  were  the  first  to  ascertain  the 
relationship  between  the  ratio  of  intensities  at  the  ears  and  the 
angular  displacement  of  localization  from  the  median  plane. 
They  discovered  that  if  the  relative  intensities  at  the  ears  of  a 
pure  tone,  256  d.  v.,  were  varied,  but  with  the  phase  difference 
maintained  at  zero,  there  resulted  a  displacement  of  the  apparent 
source  of  the  fused  sound  from  the  median  plane,  toward  the 
side  of  greater  intensity,  this  displacement,  0,  let  us  say,  to  the 
right,  and  the  intensities  at  the  ears,  I  R  and  I  right  and  left 
respectively,  having  the  following  relations : 

6  =  K  log,  -T 

wherein  K  was  a  constant  for  an  individual.  This  apparent 
source  of  fused  sound  seemed  to  have  a  position  external  to  the 
head  in  a  plane  approximately  horizontal,  usually  in  front  rather 
than  in  the  rear,  and  the  displacement  occurred  in  a  circle  of 
fairly  constant  radius. 

Since  this  publication  more  extended  observations  have  been 
1  Stewart  and  Hovda,  Psych.  Rev.  XXV,  No.  3,  May  1918,  p.  242. 


THE  INTENSITY  LOGARITHMIC  LAW 


3i 


made  with  results  that  are  interesting  and  of  psychological  im¬ 
portance. 

Recent  Measurements:  A.  Values  of  K 

Apparatus.  The  apparatus  used  in  ascertaining  values  of  K 
was  similar  in  all  essentials  to  that  of  Stewart  and  Hovda.2  The 
source  of  sound  was  a  tuning  fork  actuated  by  an  electro-magnet 
which  was  controlled  by  a  second  fork.  The  observer  used 
stethoscope  binaurals  and  sat  at  the  center  of  a  circular  scale  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  angular  displacement  of  the  image.  The 
intensities  were  varied  by  altering  the  position  of  one  of  the  re¬ 
ceiving  tubes  at  the  fork  without  producing  a  phase  difference, 
and  the  relative  intensities  at  the  ears  1 0  and  IT  were  ascertained 
by  means  of  a  Rayleigh  disc. 

Procedure  and  Residts.  In  accord  with  the  logarithmic  law, 
a  curve  drawn  with  the  logarithm  of  the  ratio  of  intensities  at  the 
ears  as  abscissae  and  with  angular  displacement  of  the  apparent 
source  of  the  fused  sound  from  the  median  plane  as  ordinates, 
would  be  a  straight  line  with  slope  K.  The  procedure  was  to 
take  at  one  sitting  a  number  of  observations  of  0,  the  angular 
displacement,  with  known  relative  values  of  I  and  IL,  the  inten¬ 
sities  at  the  ears,  and  then  subsequently  to  draw  the  straight  line 
representing  the  mean  of  the  observations  and  calculate  the  value 
of  K  from  the  slope.  From  24  to  50  observations  were  made 
for  each  curve,  these  being  scattered  so  as  to  be  “at  random.”  In 
Table  I.  are  shown  the  results  thus  far  obtained,  which,  though 
not  many,  doubtless  are  sufficient  to  enable  definite  conclusions 
to  be  drawn. 


Table  I 


Frequency 

Observer 

Number  of  Curves 

Value  of  A.' 

256 

S 

3 

1 6° 

B 

5 

30* 

512 

B 

4 

21° 

F 

4 

14° 

M 

4 

21* 

1,024 

B 

8 

10° 

F 

8 

7.8° 

M 

8 

18 3 

2  Loc.  Cit. 


32 


G.  W.  STEWART 


The  observations  of  S  are  taken  from  the  cited  work  of  Stewart 
and  Hovda,  the  256  d.v.  observations  of  B  were  obtained  by  Mr. 
E.  M.  Berry  in  experiments,  as  yet  unpublished,  conducted  by 
himself  and  Mr.  C.  C.  Bunch;  the  observations  of  B  for  512  and 
1,024  d.v.  were  made  by  Mr.  Berry  in  experiments  conducted  by 
Caroline  McGuire  Schoewe,  and  the  observations  of  F  and  M 
were  also  made  with  the  Schoewe  apparatus.  In  every  case  the 
linear  logarithmic  law  seemed  to  hold,  Berry  and  Bunch  showing 
that  it  held  up  to  0  but  slightly  less  than  90°.  Two  conclusions 
are  to  be  derived  from  the  table,  viz.,  that  the  constant  K  varies 
with  individuals  and  that  for  an  individual  it  decreases  with  in¬ 
creasing  frequency. 

B.  Lapses  in  the  Intensity  Effect. 

General  Remarks.  By  “intensity  effect”  is  meant  the  existence 
of  a  6  (retaining  above  definition)  other  than  o°  when  the  ratio 
of  intensities  is  varied.  This  “intensity  effect”  followed  a  loga¬ 
rithmic  law  in  all  the  cases  cited  above.  Presumably  this  law  is 
true  at  all  frequencies  at  which  there  is  an  intensity  effect,  but, 
without  direct  experimental  evidence,  its  existence  must  be  an 
assumption.  In  the  experiments  which  are  now  to  be  cited, 
though  no  quantitative  measurements  were  taken,  yet  no  notice¬ 
able  change  occurred  in  the  nature  of  the  intensity  effect.  Hence 
the  assumption  is  made  that  the  logarithmic  law  holds.  Experi¬ 
ments  to  test  out  this  probability  should  be  made  and  it  is  the  hope 
of  the  author  that  some  psychological  laboratory  will  undertake 
this  task.  A  similar  hope  should  be  expressed  concerning  an  ex¬ 
tension  of  the  observations  now  to  be  described. 

Apparatus  and  Procedure.  The  apparatus  used  had  been  de¬ 
signed  to  determine  quantitatively  the  effect  of  phase  difference 
at  the  ears  as  affecting  localization  and  is  described  in  detail  in  a 
recent  article.3  It  consisted  essentially  of  a  toothed  wheel  rotat¬ 
ing  in  front  of  two  bipolar  receivers.  The  currents  thus  produced 
actuated  two  head  receivers  and  these,  in  turn,  were  attached  in 
a  suitable  manner  to  stethoscope  binaurals.  With  the  apparatus 
adjusted  for  equal  phase  and  intensity  at  the  two  ears,  one  of  the 

3  Stewart,  Phys.  Rev.  N.  S.,  Vol.  XV,  No.  5,  1920,  p.  432. 


THE  INTENSITY  LOGARITHMIC  LAW 


33 


rubber  stethoscope  tubes,  right  or  left,  was  pinched,  thus  les¬ 
sening  the  intensity  on  that  side.  Attention  was  confined  to  an¬ 
swers  to  the  following  questions,  using  the  range  of  frequencies 
possible  with  the  apparatus.  Is  there  a  rotation  of  the  phantom 
source  in  the  circular  path  around  the  head?  Is  there  single 
fusion,  i.e.,  but  one  phantom  source?  If  not  single  fusion,  where 
are  the  other  phantom  sources?  These  or  equivalent  questions 
were  asked  by  the  operator  who  pinched  a  tube  on  one  side  or  the 
other  and  required  the  observer  to  describe  to  him  the  motion  of 
the  phantom.  The  operator  conducted  the  experiment  in  a  man¬ 
ner  that  assured  him  of  the  correctness  of  his  observers’  replies, 
keeping  the  operation  at  all  times  unknown  to  the  observer.  Fre¬ 
quencies  from  200  to  2,000  d.v.,  with  steps  of  100  d.v.  were  used. 
The  tone  obtained  was  not  pure,  but  previous  experience  with  the 
intensity  effect  and  the  nature  of  the  present  results  conspire  to 
give  assurance  that  no  error  in  the  conclusions  reached  was  in¬ 
troduced  by  the  slight  complexity  in  the  tone  used.  Furthermore 
an  effort  to  make  the  tone  as  pure  as  possible  by  the  appropriate 
use  of  inductance  and  capacity,  did  not  in  any  way  alter  the  re¬ 
sults  already  obtained. 

Results.  The  results  of  16  observers  are  most  easily  exhibited 
graphically  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  In  explanation  of  these  figures,  the 


34 


G.  W.  STEWART 


results  of  E.  R.  K.  in  Fig.  i  will  be  discussed.  First  there  ap¬ 
pears  a  solid  block,  then  a  shaded  region,  and  from  1150  to  1250 
d.v.  an  open  block,  where  there  is  no  connection  between  the  lines 
running  across  the  figure.  Connection,  whether  by  a  continuum 
or  by  the  shading  lines,  indicates  rotation  about  the  head  of  the 
phantom  produced  by  alterations  in  in  tensity- ratio  at  the  ears,  or, 
in  other  words,  the  existence  of  the  intensity  effect.  In  the  fully 
blocked  connection,  there  is  “single  fusion”  and  thus  one  phantom 
which  rotates  about  the  head.  The  portion  connected  by  the 
shading  lines  indicates  “double  fusion,”  or  the  existence  of  one 
rotating  phantom  while  another  phantom  remained  in  the  median 
plane.  Thus  with  E.R.K.  there  was  one  phantom,  rotating  about 
the  head  with  variations  in  intensity  ratio  for  frequencies  be¬ 
tween  200  and  750  d.v. ;  likewise  between  1850  and  the  limit, 
2000  d.v.  There  were  two  phantoms  from  750  to  1150  d.v.  and 
from  1250  to  1850  d.v.,  one  rotating  and  one  stationary  in  the 
median  plane;  there  was  no  rotating  phantom  from  1150  to  1250 
d.v.,  the  only  phantom  being  stationary  in  the  median  plane.  As 
previously  stated,  frequency  differences  of  100  vibrations  were 
used.  Thus  at  1100  there  was  double  fusion  and  at  1200  no  fu¬ 
sion  at  all  but  intermediate  frequencies  were  not  tested.  The  fre¬ 
quency  1150  d.v.  shown  in  the  figure  was  selected  arbitrarily  as 
a  convenient  one  to  represent  the  unknown  frequency  between 
1100  and  1200;  thus  in  both  Figs.  1  and  2  it  is  to  be  understood 
that  the  midway  records  were  selected  as  approximations. 

Four  of  the  observers  were  tested  at  higher  frequencies.  Their 
additional  records  were  as  follows:  CEL,  no  fusion  from  2000 
up  to  2950;  serious  deafness  in  one  ear  from  2150  to  2950;  no 
fusion  from  2950  to  3950;  M  L,  double  fusion  between  2100 
and  2350,  no  fusion  between  2350  and  2940,  double  fusion  from 
2950  to  3850;  E  M  B,  double  fusion  from  2100  to  2950,  single 
fusion  from  2950  to  3250,  and  double  fusion  from  3250  to  3850; 
A  E  T  F,  single  fusion  continuous  between  2000  to  2550,  double 
fusion  between  2550  and  3950;  C  R  B,  no  fusion  continued  from 
2000  to  4000.  These  additional  data  do  not  introduce  any  new 
features,  but  merely  confirm  the  apparent  irregularity  of  the  oc¬ 
currence  of  the  three  conditions  of  fusion  specified. 


THE  INTENSITY  LOGARITHMIC  LAW 


35 


The  results  as  shown  by  Figs,  i  and  2  may  be  stated  as  fol¬ 
lows  : 

1.  The  “intensity  effect,”  i.e.,  the  rotation  of  the  apparent 
source  of  fused  tone  about  the  head,  does  not  exist  for  all  fre¬ 
quencies  from  200  to  4,000  d.v.  for  all  individuals. 

2.  With  sixteen  observers,  ten  had  a  definite  cessation  of  the 
intensity  effect  in  a  certain  region  or  certain  regions  within  the 
frequency  range  of  200  to  2,000  d.v. 

3.  These  frequency  bands  vary  in  “breadth”  or  range  of  fre¬ 
quency  and  in  the  frequency  of  the  center  of  the  band,  but  with 
one  exception  all  occur  above  800  d.v. 

4.  There  exist  frequency  bands  of  single  fusion,  giving  but 
one  phantom,  this  one  having  a  displacement  from  the  median 
plane  depending  upon  the  ratio  of  intensities  at  the  ears;  there 
are  also  frequency  bands  wherein  two  phantoms  are  formed,  one 
stationary  in  the  median  plane  and  the  other  rotating  as  in  the 
case  of  single  fusion  just  cited. 

5.  The  records  of  the  sixteen  observers  do  not  indicate  any 
“norm”  of  which  the  others  may  be  said  to  be  variations. 

Discussion 

The  author  is  not  a  psychologist  and  cannot  therefore  discuss 
the  significance  or  general  bearing  of  these  results.  But  it  is  his 
hope  that  one  or  more  psychologists  may  be  attracted  by  this  in¬ 
teresting  field  of  research,  which  seems  barely  touched  upon  by 
these  experiments. 

These  additional  data  upon  the  logarithmic  law  are  of  impor¬ 
tance  in  considering  the  function  of  intensity  in  binaural  localiza¬ 
tion,  for  recent  contributions4  indicate  that  up  to  a  frequency  of 
approximately  1,200  d.v.,  intensity  is  a  much  less  important  fac¬ 
tor  than  phase.  Not  only  is  there  ample  quantitative  evidence  to 
verify  this  conclusion,  but  there  is  also  indirect  evidence  in  the 
wide  individual  variation  of  K  as  shown  in  this  paper  when  com¬ 
parison  is  made  with  small  individual  variations  in  results  with 
phase  differences  only. 

A  criticism  may  arise  because  no  statement  has  been  made  as 

4  Stewart,  Phys.  Rev.  XV,  No.  5,  1920,  pp.  425-432. 


36 


G.  IV.  STEWART 


to  the  relative  acuity  of  hearing  of  any  of  the  sixteen  observers; 
especially  for  those  frequencies  where  lapses  of  the  “intensity 
effect”  were  found.  To  be  sure,  it  would  have  been  a  good  plan 
to  have  made  such  tests.  It  is  improbable,  however,  that  any 
important  changes  in  our  results  would  be  thereby  indicated ;  for 
in  those  regions  where  the  intensity  effect  ceases,  the  image  still 
remains  in  the  median  plane,  which  would  not  be  the  case  if 
there  had  been  any  serious  deafness  of  either  ear  to  these  fre¬ 
quencies.  Referring  to  the  nature  of  the  observations  for  the 
value  of  K  as  recorded  above,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  a  slight 
deafness  in  one  ear  would  cause  a  shift  in  the  curve  along  the 
axis  representing  the  logarithm  of  the  intensity  ratio,  but  would 
not  change  the  value  of  K. 

There  is  one  apparent  inconsistency  between  the  above  results 
on  intensity  lapses  and  those  gained  from  common  experience. 
It  has  been  stated  that  in  the  absence  of  an  “intensity  effect”  the 
phantom  remains  in  the  median  plane;  but  this  cannot  be  and  is 
not  true  when  the  intensity  ratios  are  very  great.  For  example, 
with  the  author,  who  has  an  intensity  effect  lapse  in  the  region 
of  1,024  d.v.,  accurate  quantitative  measurements  varying  inten¬ 
sities  at  this  frequency  with  varying  interesting  ratios,  showed 
that  the  phantom  remained  in  front  until  the  intensity  ratio  be¬ 
came  approximately  200:  1,  when,  intensity  ratio  being  continu¬ 
ously  increased,  another  phantom  appeared  directly  at  the  side, 
then  gradually  increased  in  intensity  while  the  intensity  of  the 
median  plane  phantom  decreased  until  it  finally  disappeared  alto¬ 
gether.  It  is  to  be  understood,  then,  that  in  the  “lapse"  region  a 
single  phantom  remains  stationary  in  the  median  plane  even  for 
values  of  the  intensity  ratio  which  will  cause  a  large  displacement 
for  neighboring  frequencies,  and  that  no  alterations  in  the  in¬ 
tensity  ratio,  no  matter  how  great,  will  cause  this  phantom  to 
rotate,  though  another  distinct  image  may  appear  at  the  side  when 
the  ratio  is  sufficiently  great. 

The  fact  that  there  is  a  lapse  in  the  intensity  effect  shows  that 
there  must  also  be  a  lapse  in  the  logarithmic  law,  assuming  that 
the  latter  can  be  shown  to  hold  at  frequencies  less  and  greater 
than  the  frequencies  within  the  lapse  region. 


THE  INTENSITY  LOGARITHMIC  LAW 


37 


The  author  does  not  assume  that  these  few  observations  con¬ 
cerning  the  lapse  of  an  intensity  effect  are  adequately  refined  or 
that  the  series  is  sufficiently  extensive.  Inasmuch  as  he  is  chiefly 
concerned  with  the  physical  aspects  of  audition  and  does  not  con¬ 
template  a  continuation  of  these  researches,  it  seemed  neverthe¬ 
less  desirable  that  the  results  should  be  presented,  for  whatever 
psychological  value  they  may  have. 

Summary  of  Part  I 

1.  The  binaural  intensity  logarithmic  law  of  Stewart  and 
Hovda  is  found  to  apply  at  256,  512  and  1,024  d.v. 

2.  The  constant  K,  occurring  in  the  mathematical  expression 
of  the  logarithmic  law,  is  shown  to  vary  widely  with  different 
individuals  and,  with  a  single  individual  to  decrease  with  increas¬ 
ing  frequency. 

3.  A  test  was  made  with  16  observers  with  frequencies  varying 
from  200  to  2,000  d.v.,  and  with  four  of  these  from  2000  to 
4000,  the  purpose  being  to  ascertain  if  an  effect  similar  to  the  one 
expressed  in  the  logarithmic  law  existed  throughout  the  entire 
range  of  pitch.  The  results  show  that  there  is  such  an  effect 
within  the  frequency  range  stated,  but  that  with  10  of  the  16 
observers  there  occurred  one  or  more  groups  of  frequencies 
wherein  the  effect  was  absent.  In  addition,  with  each  of  14  of 
the  observers  there  were  one  or  more  frequency  regions  or  bands 
in  which  there  seemed  to  be  two  apparent  sources  of  sound. 

Part  II :  The  Difference  of  Phase  Effect 

Recently5  the  author  has  presented  quantitative  measurements 
of  the  binaural  difference  of  phase  effect  and  this  brief  report  is 
an  extension  of  those  results  presented  in  a  journal  reaching  psy¬ 
chologists.  By  “binaural  difference  of  phase  effect”  is  meant  the 
alteration  of  the  angular  displacement  from  the  median  plane  of 
the  apparent  source  of  the  fused  sound  when  varying  phase  of 
differences  of  a  given  frequency  are  presented  at  the  ears,  and  the 
intensities  are  kept  constant  and  equal.  This  “effect”  has  been 

5  Stewart,  Phys.  Rev.  xv,  No.  5.  IQ20,  p.  432. 


3» 


G.  W.  STEWART 


known  for  a  number  of  years;  a  review  of  the  literature  is  given 
by  the  author  in  the  Physical  Review,  IX,  1917,  p.  502. 

Apparatus.  As  already  described  in  the  former  report,6  the 
phase  differences  at  the  ears  were  produced  by  a  “phaser”  and 
the  observations  checked  by  tuning  fork  sources.  The  sounds 
were  led  to  the  ear  by  rubber  tubing  and  stethoscope  binaurals. 
Open  tubes  at  the  ears  were  also  tried  and  there  seemed  to  be 
no  difference  in  the  effect. 

Results :  Quantitative  measurements  of  phase  effect.  The  ex¬ 
periments  showed  clearly  that  the  angular  displacement  of  the 
apparent  source  of  the  fused  sound  or  “image”  is  strictly  pro¬ 
portional  to  the  phase  difference  at  the  ears,  with,  of  course,  the 
limiting  provision  that  the  linear  relation  is  true  only  for  a  dif¬ 
ference  of  phase,  0,  less  than  1800.  At  6  =  180°,  the  image 
crosses  from  the  maximum  angular  displacement  on  one  side  of 
the  median  plane  to  that  on  the  other  side.  The  experimental 
procedure  was  to  ascertain  this  linear  relation  between  0,  the 
angular  displacement,  and  <j>,  the  difference  of  phase,  for  a  single 
frequency.  Two  observational  methods  were  employed.  With 
frequency  constant,  settings  of  the  phaser  were  made  at  “ran¬ 
dom5'  by  an  operator  and  the  observer  recorded  the  correspond¬ 
ing  values  of  6.  When  the  observations  were  plotted  with  <f> 
and  0  as  coordinates,  a  straight  line  representing  the  mean  of  the 
observations  was  drawn  and  the  slope,  or  </>/#,  computed.  For 
each  curve  approximately  20  observations  were  made.  For  each 
frequency  tested  a  number  of  curves  were  taken,  usually  five  or 
more,  and  the  average  value  of  <t>/6  computed. 

A  second  method  of  procedure  was  for  the  observer  to  ad¬ 
just  the  phaser  so  that  a  certain  angular  displacement  would  be 
produced.  A  “random"  selection  of  angular  displacements  was 
used.  The  phaser  was  located  in  a  separate  room  and  the  ad¬ 
justment  made  by  a  rod  extending  through  the  wall.  The  ob¬ 
server  had  no  knowledge  of  the  phase  difference  settings  during 
the  series  of  the  20  observations. 

The  accompanying  three  curves,  Fig.  3,  represent  the  com¬ 
puted  values  of  <f>/0  for  three  different  observers.  On  the  up- 


6  Loc.  Cit. 


THE  INTENSITY  LOGARITHMIC  LAW 


39 


permost  curve  the  dots  represent  results  with  the  phaser,  and  the 
crosses  and  circles  tuning  fork  tests  described  in  the  earlier  report 
already  cited.  The  computed  values  corresponding  to  the  other 
two  curves  are  represented  by  squares  and  triangles.  The  ob¬ 
servational  values  for  the  uppermost  curve  were  secured  by  the 
first  method  described  and  the  remainder  by  the  second  method. 
It  is  noticed  that  the  second  seems  to  give  more  consistent  results. 

Frequency  limit  of  the  phase  effect.  With  the  same  apparatus 
measurements  of  the  frequency  limit  of  the  phase  effect  was  made 
upon  16  observers.  The  values  of  frequency  recorded  are  only 
approximate  having  been  made  by  a  comparison  with  a  mono¬ 
chord  under  constant  tension,  which  had  been  standardized  by  a 
fork.  The  accompanying  table  shows  the  limiting  frequency  for 
each  individual.  Above  this  limit  there  was  no  rotation  what¬ 
ever  of  the  fused  sound  about  the  head  with  any  of  the  frequen¬ 
cies  less  than  2,000  d.v.  that  were  employed. 

There  are  two  striking  indications  to  be  found  in  the  table. 
The  first  is  that  the  frequency  is  approximately  constant,  and 
second,  that  there  are  exceptional  wide  variations  from  the  mean 
value.  The  average  deviation  from  the  mean  is  155  d.v.  Omit¬ 
ting  two  observers,  it  is  only  no  d.v.  This  constancy  has  a  dis- 


40 


G.  W.  STEWART 


Table 

I 

E 

M 

B 

1360  dv. 

A  E 

T 

F 

1335 

C 

K 

K 

1119 

H 

M 

H 

1474 

M 

L 

1767 

I 

K 

1249 

E 

S 

1392 

C 

R 

B 

1333 

S 

C 

1161 

E 

R 

K 

1146 

C 

E 

L 

1058 

R 

K 

1145 

G 

W 

S 

1248 

E 

G 

R 

1151 

A 

C 

R 

825 

G 

R 

W 

1393 

Mean 

1260 

tinct  bearing  upon  the  conclusion  elsewhere  derived7  that  phase 
difference  is  the  most  important  factor  in  localization  up  to 
1,200  d.v.  Attention  should  be  here  directed  specifically  to  the 
results  of  other  observers  upon  the  frequency  limit.  L.  T.  More8 
states  that  a  fork  of  512  d.v.  is  near  to  the  limit  where  he  pos¬ 
sesses  accuracy  in  the  judgments  conditioned  by  phase  differ¬ 
ences;  that  with  1,024  d.v.  his  judgment  became  untrustworthy 
and  that  with  3,000  d.v.  he  had  no  sense  whatever  of  direction. 
Lord  Raleigh9  gives  the  limiting  frequency  of  his  right  and  left 
displacement  judgments  as  768  d.v.  C.  S.  Myers  and  H.  A. 
Wilson10  state  in  general  terms  that  with  very  high  frequencies 
the  lateral  effects  cannot  be  obtained. 

Discussion  of  Results 

It  seems  that  the  similarity  of  the  values  of  <f>/0  for  three  indi¬ 
viduals,  the  only  ones  upon  whom  extensive  measurements  were 
made,  would  indicate  the  probability  of  no  considerable  variation 
for  different  individuals. 

7  Stewart,  Loc.  Cit. 

8  More,  Phil.  Mag.  XVIII,  1909,  p.  308. 

9  Lord  Raleigh,  Phil.  Mag.  XIII,  1907,  p.  224. 

10  Myers  and  Wilson. 


THE  INTENSITY  LOGARITHMIC  LAW  41 

It  is  to  be  pointed  out  that  if  such  a  straight  line  as  in  Fig.  3, 
when  extended,  passed  through  the  origin,  it  would  indicate  that 
0,  the  angular  displacement,  is  strictly  proportional  to  the  differ¬ 
ence  in  time  of  arrival  at  the  ears  of  a  given  phase,  and  that  this 
is  independent  of  frequency.  This  is  seen  to  be  true  from  the 
following : 

We  would  have  from  the  curves, 

<j>/6  =  K  X  / 

where  K  is  constant  and  /  is  the  frequency.  If  one  selects  any 
time  interval,  At,  and  assumes  the  value  of  0  for  each  frequency 
0  to  be  so  selected  that  the  arrival  of  waves  for  all  frequencies 
will  differ  as  to  time  by  the  value  At,  then  we  have, 

Since  <£  oc  /X  At 

0  X  Kx/oc/X  At 
or,  6  oc  At 

Or,  in  words,  0  is  proportional  to  the  time-interval  and  is  inde¬ 
pendent  of  frequency.  It  is  obvious  that  A t  can  be  any  time- 
interval  and  that  therefore  the  statement  is  perfectly  general. 
These  considerations  lead  one  to  the  conclusion  that,  approxi¬ 
mately,  the  binaural  difference  of  phase  effect  is  quantitatively  a 
time  effect.  But  probably  a  more  illuminating  explanation  is 
found  in  the  author's  earlier  contribution.11 

It  was  shown  in  that  report  that  the  experimental  curves  agree 
quantitatively  with  the  conclusion  that  localization  of  pure  tones 
ranging  from  100  to  1,200  d.v.  depends  chiefly  upon  the  phase 
at  the  ears.  Or,  to  explain  more  fully,  the  computed  phase  dif¬ 
ference  at  the  ears  when  there  is  a  source  of  sound  at  a  given 
angular  displacement  from  the  median  plane  corresponds  to  that 
phase-difference  which  in  these  experiments  actually  produced 
that  same  angular  displacement  of  the  apparent  source  of  the 
fused  sound.  In  short,  it  seems  that  the  binaural  difference  of 
phase  effect  has  been  evolved  through  experience.  The  author  is 
not  here  concerned  with  the  question  as  to  whether  this  binaural 
difference  of  phase  sensitivity  is  acquired  by  the  individual  or  not. 


11  Loc  Cit. 


42 


G.  IV.  STEWART 


Concerning  the  limiting  frequency  and  the  small  individual 
variation  from  a  mean,  our  interest  is  aroused  because  it  is  not 
clear  why  such  should  be  the  case,  even  under  the  supposition 
that  the  phase-sensitivity  herein  discussed  is  chiefly  responsible 
for  the  ability  to  localize  with  frequencies  lower  than  the  upper 
limit.  Attention  should  be  called,  however,  to  the  significant 
fact  that  the  phase  gives  a  unique  location  only  when  6  is  less 
than  i8o°.  According  to  the  upper  curve  in  Fig.  i,  the  value 
of  $  corresponding  to  tf^iSo0  at  1,200  d.v.  would  be  ap¬ 
proximately  36°.  Since  this  angle,  corresponding  to  0  =  180°, 
diminishes  with  increasing  frequency,  doubtless  the  usefulness  of 
the  difference  of  phase  must  accordingly  decrease  as  the  fre¬ 
quency  increases.  But  this  explanation  is  not  fully  satisfactory, 
though  it  may  become  so  when  assisted  by  additional  information 
to  be  acquired  in  the  future. 

Psychologists  are  familiar  with  the  influence  of  intensity-dif¬ 
ference  upon  localization  and  this  phenomenon  is  subject  to  gen¬ 
erally  accepted  principles.  But  the  recognition  of  a  phase-differ¬ 
ence  at  the  ears  with  the  two  intensities  equal  means,  it  would 
seem,  a  response  to  a  different  and  more  intrinsic  feature  of  the 
stimulus.  The  suggestion  that  we  have  here  to  do  with  a  response 
to  the  character  of  the  stimulus  will  doubtless  be  regarded  with 
skepticism,  and  an  attempt  will  be  made  by  some  to  explain  the 
“phase-effect'’  in  other  terms.  Indeed,  this  has  already  been  at¬ 
tempted  by  Myers  and  Wilson12  who  have  explained  the  phenome¬ 
non  in  terms  of  intensity  at  the  ears,  the  alterations  in  intensity 
being  occasioned  by  sound-conduction  through  the  head  and  the 
fact  that  with  changing  phases  incident  at  the  ears,  the  combined 
intensity  from  the  direct  and  cross-conducted  waves  is  altered. 
There  are  several  indirect  arguments  against  the  acceptance  of 
such  an  explanation,  but  it  has  been  the  writer’s  good  fortune  to 
get  what  seems  to  be  conclusive  evidence  that  any  explanation  in 
terms  of  physical  intensities  at  the  ears  cannot  be  correct.  This 
evidence  is  direct  and  readily  understood.  It  has  been  shown  in 
Part  I  that  with  some  individuals  there  are  frequency  regions  or 
bands  wherein  the  observers  are  not  influenced  in  their  localiza- 

12  Myers  and  Wilson.  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  1908,  80.  p.  260. 


THE  INTENSITY  LOGARITHMIC  LAW 


43 


tion  by  variations  in  the  ratio  of  intensities  at  the  ears,  phase- 
difference  remaining  constant.  With  them,  in  this  “lapse-region,” 
the  apparent  source  of  the  fused  sound  remains  stationary  in  the 
median  plane  when  the  ratio  of  intensities  is  altered  widely.  But 
the  significant  fact  is  that  with  six  of  sixteen  observers  the 
"phase -effect”  is  continuous  in  at  least  a  portion  of  this  lapse- 
region.  In  short,  the  phase-phenomenon  seems  to  be  independent 
of  the  intensity  displacement  effect.  The  reader  may  see  the 
evidence  most  distinctly  in  Figs,  i  and  2  of  the  preceding  section 
wherein  the  single  straight  horizontal  lines  represent  continuity 
of  the  phase-effect  while  the  partially  or  fully  blocked  lines  above 
represent  the  varying  judgments  of  these  observers  with  differ¬ 
ence  of  intensity  alone.  The  open  space  in  the  region  between 
two  lines  otherwise  connected  either  by  a  solid  block  or  by  sepa¬ 
rated  vertical  shading,  represents  the  lapse  in  the  intensity  dis¬ 
placement-effect  while  the  numbers  at  the  top  represent  the  fre¬ 
quencies  employed.  To  repeat,  the  simple  argument  is  that  if  a 
variation  of  intensity-ratio  at  the  ears  does  not  produce  an  angu¬ 
lar  displacement  of  the  fused  sound  when  these  intensities  are 
presented  to  the  organ  of  hearing  through  the  aerial  route  of  the 
external  meatus,  then  a  variation  in  intensity-ratio  secured  by 
transmission  through  any  other  route  to  the  same  organs  of 
hearing  would  likewise  produce  no  displacement  of  the  fused 
sound.  It  is  obvious  that  the  response  of  the  organ  of  hearing  to 
intensity-ratio  would  be  independent  of  the  manner  in  which  that 
intensity- ratio  was  produced,  or,  in  other  words,  independent  of 
the  route  traversed  by  the  sound-waves.  It  would  therefore  seem 
that  any  “intensity”  explanation  of  the  binaural  phase  difference- 
effect  must  be  abandoned.  It  should  be  clearly  understood  by  the 
reader  that  throughout  this  entire  discussion,  the  words  “in¬ 
tensity”  and  “phase”  are  used  as  purely  physical  terms. 

A  word  may  also  be  added  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  auth¬ 
or's  experiments  on  phase  and  intensity  have  by  no  means  fur¬ 
nished  a  complete  and  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  localiza¬ 
tion  of  sound.  There  is  much  information  yet  to  be  accumulated 
and  probably  some  of  it  will  require  a  close  cooperation  between 
physicists  and  psychologists. 


44 


G.  IV.  STEWART 


Summary  of  Part  II 

This  paper  records  the  following  facts  obtained  in  regard  to 
binaural  differences  of  phase,  herein  called  “phase  effects” : 

1.  The  ratio  of  the  phase  difference  at  the  ears  to  the  angular 
displacement  of  the  fused  sound  from  the  median  plane  is  ap¬ 
proximately  proportional  to  the  frequency  of  the  pure  tone  em¬ 
ployed. 

2.  This  ratio  is  approximately  the  same  for  the  three  individu¬ 
als  upon  whom  extensive  experiments  have  been  made. 

3.  There  is  an  upper  frequency  limit  of  the  phase-effect,  aver¬ 
aging  1,260  for  16  observers,  the  range  of  the  tests  being  200 
to  2,000  d.v.  Tests  with  one  observer  up  to  4,000  gave  no  indi¬ 
cation  of  a  recurrence  of  the  phase-effect,  at  higher  frequencies. 

4.  The  results  upon  the  phase-effect,  combined  with  earlier 
published  results  upon  the  effect  of  varying  intensity-ratios  at  the 
ears  show  that  the  “phase-effect”  cannot  be  explained  in  terms  of 
intensity  and  that  the  organs  of  hearing  must  respond  to  phase  as 
such,  since  phase  and  intensity  are  the  only  physical  variations 
possible  in  a  pure  tone. 

Physical  Laboratory 
State  University  of  Iowa. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 
THROUGHOUT  THE  TONAL  RANGE* 

by 

Cordia  C.  Bunch,  Ph.D. 

Methods  of  testing  auditory  acuity — historical;  the  Iowa  pitch  range  audio¬ 
meter;  procedure,  discussion  of  cases,  and  conclusions. 

Methods  of  Testing  Auditory  Acuity — Historical 

The  human  voice.  Of  all  the  tests  of  auditory  acuity  voice 
tests  have  played  the  most  important  role  from  the  sociological, 
psychological,  and  otological  points  of  view.  The  ease  with 
which  such  tests  are  conducted,  their  complete  independence  of 
mechanical  contrivances,  their  significance  from  the  social  view¬ 
point,  as  well  as  their  diagnostic  value,  have  in  part  counter¬ 
balanced  the  impossibility  of  adequate  standardization.  Bentley 
says  (6),  “There  is  no  doubt  that  human  speech,  could  it  be  defi¬ 
nitely  controlled,  would  furnish  the  most  adequate  and  most 
comprehensive  means  of  determining  auditory  acuity. ”  The  re¬ 
port  of  the  Committee  of  Otological  Research  of  the  Royal  So¬ 
ciety  of  Medicine  for  1918  (12)  states  that 

“A  scheme  for  the  tests  of  hearing  was  discussed  and  drawn  up  as  fol¬ 
lows :  Conversational  Voice — single  words  or  sentences  with  the  opposite 
ear  closed.  Distance  from  each  ear  expressed  as  a  fraction  with  the  dis¬ 
tance  at  which  voice  is  heard  from  the  normal  ear  as  denominator.  Whisper 
— conditions  as  above,  but  whisper  produced  by  residual  air  after  forced 
expiration.  It  is  recognized  that  the  voice  tests  are  approximate  only,  as  it 
is  impossible  to  devise  an  exact  standard.  The  words  or  phrases  to  be  re¬ 
corded  when  possible.” 

The  choice  of  the  spoken  or  whispered  voice  is  largely  de- 

*  The  writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  help  of  those  with  whom  he  has 
been  most  closely  associated  in  this  study.  Dr.  C.  E.  Seashore  suggested  the 
problem  and  has  offered  every  facility  of  the  department  for  its  successful 
completion.  Dr.  L.  W.  Dean  gave  his  constant  encouragement  and  assistance 
and  made  the  diagnoses  of  the  pathological  cases  which  are  presented.  Prof. 
A.  H.  Ford  gave  much  assistance  in  the  design  and  supervision  of  construc¬ 
tion  of  the  apparatus.  Prof.  G.  W.  Stewart  offered  many  helpful  sugges¬ 
tions.  Mr.  J.  B.  Dempster,  the  departmental  mechanician,  by  his  skill  and 
practical  knowledge  of  construction  assisted  very  materially  in  the  work. 


46 


CORDIA  C.  BUNCH 


termined  by  the  conditions  under  which  the  tests  are  conducted. 
If  a  large  room  is  available,  the  spoken  voice  is  usually  preferred. 
This  is  particularly  true  in  schools  where,  as  a  rule,  sufficient 
space  is  available.  The  cramped  quarters  of  the  practitioner 
usually  compel  the  use  of  the  whispered  voice.  The  value  of  the 
whispered  word  is  usually  considered  one  third  that  of  the  spoken. 

Frequently  the  voice  test  is  used  without  knowledge  of  its 
diagnostic  value  or  nature  and  is  exceedingly  crude.  The  monu¬ 
mental  work  of  Wolf  (74)  in  determining  the  auditory  values 
of  the  voice  sounds  deserves  notice  because  of  its  scientific  ac¬ 
curacy  as  determined  by  later  investigation.  Speech,  according 
to  Wolff,  has  a  compass  of  five  octaves,  from  C  to  c5,  the  lowest 
sound  being  that  of  the  lingual  r  and  the  highest  the  s  sound. 
Different  disturbances  in  the  sound  conducting  mechanism  of 
the  ear  are  indicated  by  variation  in  the  ability  to  perceive  the 
tones  in  different  parts  of  the  musical  scale.  He  divides  words 
into  three  groups  depending  upon  their  pitch.  Group  1  contains 
the  acute  and  far  reaching  hissing  sounds  such  as  are  present  in 
the  German  word  Strasse,  and  the  acute  sounds  of  low  intensity 
such  as  the  /  in  Feder.  Group  2  are  called  explosive  sounds,  as 
k  in  Kette.  Group  3  contains  the  grave  sounds  such  as  the  lingual 
r  mentioned  above.  In  middle  ear  disturbances  the  patient  will 
understand  Meter  for  Messer ,  Braten  for  Strasse ,  etc.  The  con¬ 
sonant  m  sound  is  of  diagnostic  value  only  when  whispered. 

Gradenigo  (19)  gives  the  distances  at  which  various  voice 
sounds  should  be  heard.  He  prefers  the  spoken  word  to  the 
whisper  test,  especially  with  army  recruits. 

Zwaardemaker  (78)  says,  “The  lack  of  consistency  in  the  re¬ 
sults  of  testing  aural  acuity  by  means  of  whisper  is  seen  in  a 
new  light  if  the  choice  of  words  is  undertaken  in  a  more  syste¬ 
matic  fashion/’  This  writer  has  reviewed  the  work  of  Pipping 
(Finnish),  Boeke  (Dutch),  Hermann  (German),  Sasswjliff 
(Russian),  Verschuur  (Dutch  Dialect),  Bevier  ( American-Eng- 
lish),  Stevani  (Italian),  and  Delsaux-Quix  (French)  and  di¬ 
vides  the  voice  sounds  into  two  groups,  the  zona  gravis,  or  sounds 
of  tho  lower  part  of  the  musical  scale  from  C  to  d2,  and  the 
zona  acuta,  or  treble  zone,  from  d2  to  fis.4 

Andrews  (3)  prepared  a  table  which  he  thinks  contains  all 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


47 


the  vocal  elements  of  Wolff's  series,  has  an  equivalent  number 
of  elementary  words,  and  gives  relative  prominence  to  the  vari¬ 
ous  classes  of  consonants.  Unfortunately  he  does  not  attempt  an 
interpretation  of  his  results  from  the  diagnostic  viewpoint. 

Kerrison  (28)  uses  a  table  of  spoken  words  consisting  of 
seventeen  columns  of  monosyllables,  each  column  containing 
seven  words  beginning  with  the  same  consonant.  In  the  first 
column  are  the  words  bad,  bend,  bed,  band,  bard,  bold,  bond. 
Beginning  with  the  first  word  of  this  column  the  examiner  is 
to  pronounce  the  words  across  the  list,  the  first  word  in  each 
column,  i.e.,  bad,  cad,  dab,  fad,  gap,  hard,  jag,  lad,  mad,  nap, 
pad,  rat,  sat,  tap,  vat,  wall,  zeal,  then  the  next  line,  etc.,  recording 
the  words  missed.  He  holds  that  ordinary  words  are  unreliable. 
If  numbers  or  polysyllables  are  used  the  patient  quickly  learns 
the  sounds  and  is  soon  able  to  repeat  them  whether  he  hears  the 
sounds  distinctly  or  not.  Because  of  the  widely  different  values 
of  the  consonants  in  ordinary  words  a  cue  is  given  to  the  ob¬ 
server  which  helps  with  the  sequence  of  the  other  sounds.  Be¬ 
sides,  the  patient  soon  learns  the  vocabulary  of  the  examiner. 

A  further  approach  in  the  direction  of  standardization  of  vocal 
sounds  is  made  by  those  experimenters  who  attempt  to  produce 
the  sounds  of  the  voice  by  artificial  methods.  Marage  (34)  in¬ 
vented  an  acoumeter  which  produced  mechanically  the  various 
vowel  sounds.  Robin  (45)  also  devised  a  method  of  producing 
vowels  mechanically. 

It  is  now  generally  accepted  that  each  vowel  obtains  its  pecul¬ 
iar  quality  from  the  dominance  of  overtones  at  specific  pitch 
levels.  Miller  (35)  with  the  phonodeik,  an  instrument  used  for 
tone  analysis,  has  determined  that  there  are  points  of  resonance 
for  the  various  vowel  sounds  and  that  these  points  are  constant 
for  all  voices.  Any  loss  of  hearing  for  a  sound  is  thus  accurately 
located  in  the  musical  scale.  He  found  that  these  points  of  maxi¬ 
mum  resonance  are  as  follows : 


Vowel 

ma 

maw 

mow 

moo 

Whisper 

1019  d.v. 

781 

515 

383 

Spoken 

1050 

732 

461 

326 

mat 

met 

mate 

meet 

Whisper 

857 

678 

488 

391 

1890 

1942 

2385 

2815 

Spoken 

800 

691 

488 

308 

1840 

1953 

2461 

3100 

CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


48 

These  results  indicate  that  the  tonal  range  between  326  d.v. 
and  3100  d.v.  is  most  directly  concerned  in  the  determination  of 
vowel  sounds. 

It  is  difficult  to  select  any  system  and  call  it  ideal.  Each  ex¬ 
aminer  has  a  series  of  words  which  give  results  capable  of  diag¬ 
nostic  interpretation.  It  is  doubtful  if  examinations  in  different 
languages  are  comparable  because  of  the  wide  differences  in 
enunciation. 

The  phonograph.  Bentley  (6)  attempted  a  standardization  of 
voice  tests  by  means  of  the  phonograph.  Two  methods  of  con¬ 
trolling  intensity  were  suggested,  one  by  the  use  of  a  certain  type 
of  reproducer  and  the  other  by  a  sort  of  stop  arranged  in  the 
rubber  transmission  tubes.  Bryant  (10)  suggested  that  the 
sound  from  the  phonograph  be  conducted  to  the  ears  of  both  the 
patient  and  the  examiner  by  means  of  parallel  rubber  tubes. 
Bevier  (7)  investigated  the  quality  of  the  tones  from  a  phono¬ 
graph.  He  analyzed  the  sound  of  the  letter  a  and  found  that  the 
quality  of  the  tone  depends  upon  the  fundamental  together  with 
the  first  two  or  three  overtones,  the  maximum  being  from  1000 
to  1300  vibrations.  The  fact  that  the  phonograph  is  not  in  use 
for  tests  of  audition  seems  to  indicate  that  it  has  not  proved 
successful  in  practice. 

Tuning  forks.  Bezold  (8)  says,  “The  separation  of  noises 
from  tones  long  hindered  the  development  of  otology,  because  it 
gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  a  separate  region  for  the  perception  of 
noises  outside  the  cochlea,  in  another  part  of  the  labyrinth. ” 
Having  definitely  established  the  reliability  and  accuracy  of  tests 
using  tuning  forks  which  give  pure  tones,  the  necessity  of  se¬ 
curing  quantitative  relationships  between  the  thresholds  for  nor¬ 
mal  and  diseased  ears  occupied  the  attention  of  otologists,  v. 
Conta's  principle  of  recording  the  results  of  fork  tests  as  frac¬ 
tions,  the  numerator  being  the  time  in  which  the  diseased  ear 
was  able  to  perceive  the  tones  and  the  denominator  that  required 
for  the  “normal"  ear,  was  offered  in  1864.  Ostmann  (36), 
working  with  several  forks  in  different  parts  of  the  musical  scale, 
found  that  the  rate  of  dying  out  varied  in  different  parts  of  the 
scale.  The  principle  suggested  by  Prout  (39)  in  1872  of  com- 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


49 


paring  distances  and  recording  the  results  in  the  form  of  frac¬ 
tions  gives  serviceable  results,  but  the  fractions  do  not  indicate 
acuity  values  directly  since  the  intensity  of  the  sound  varies  as 
the  square  of  the  distance. 

In  1834  Henry  Scheibler  (48)  constructed  a  set  of  tuning 
forks,  56  in  number,  covering  the  octave  between  440  and 
880  d.v. 

For  the  purpose  of  exploring  the  entire  range  of  audible  tones 
which  seemed  to  be  the  next  logical  step,  Koenig  built  his  tono¬ 
meter  (30).  This  consisted  of  a  series  of  carefully  tuned  forks, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  in  number,  which  covered  the  tonal  range 
between  16  and  21844  vibrations.  In  the  description  of  this 
series  of  forks  we  find  no  report  of  an  attempt  to  control  the 
intensity  of  the  tones  either  by  a  specially  constructed  striker 
or  by  any  other  device.  The  purpose  was  to  secure  qualitative 
rather  than  quantitative  results. 

Since  the  forks  of  Koenig  did  not  reach  the  upper  limit  of 
acuity,  Appun  (4)  constructed  a  series  of  eleven  forks  covering 
the  range  between  2000  and  50000  vibrations. 

For  general  diagnostic  procedure  we  find  that  most  examiners 
employ  a  series  of  forks  similar  to  that  constructed  by  Edelmann 
and  Bezold,  presented  in  America  by  Knapp  (29).  The  set  is 
called  the  “Continuous  tone  series”  because  all  the  tones  and  half 
tones  in  the  range  of  the  forks  may  be  secured  by  means  of  ad¬ 
justable  weights.  The  ten  forks  of  the  set  do  not  cover  the  en¬ 
tire  range  of  audible  tones  but  are  supplemented  by  three  whistles, 
the  highest  being  a  modification  of  Gabon’s  whistle.  On  ac¬ 
count  of  the  size  of  the  adjustable  weights,  the  tones  emitted  are 
quite  free  from  partials.  The  forks  as  used  by  Bezold  are  not 
accurate  because  of  the  impossibility  of  controlling  the  strength 
of  the  energizing  blow.  The  low  forks  emit  very  faint  tones; 
more  intense  sounds  are  needed  to  determine  absolute  deafness. 

Downey  (14)  devised  a  means  of  energizing  the  tuning  forks 
used  in  tests  of  audition  by  regulating  the  distance  from  which  a 
small  weight  fell  against  the  prongs.  The  tones  were  carried  to 
the  ears  of  the  observer  through  rubber  tubes.  Quix  (40)  di¬ 
vided  the  pure  tones  into  three  groups  depending  upon  the  dis- 


50 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


tance  at  which  the  tuning  forks,  energized  in  a  definite  manner, 
could  be  heard. 

In  1906  Behm  (5)  brought  out  his  universal  sonometer  and  a 
tuning  fork  sonometer.  He  entered  into  an  exhaustive  consider¬ 
ation  of  the  difference  between  what  he  called  the  physiologic 
and  the  physical  intensity  of  sound  as  determined  by  his  sono¬ 
meter. 

On  the  more  practical  side  several  devices  have  been  presented 
whereby  an  approximate  measurement  of  the  intensity  of  the 
sound  may  be  made.  Von  Kittlitz  (64)  attached  two  thin  plates 
to  the  prongs  of  a  fork.  The  plate  held  nearer  the  eye  of  the  ex¬ 
perimenter  is  provided  with  a  narrow  slit  through  which  the  ex¬ 
cursions  of  a  white  triangle  on  the  other  prong  may  be  observed 
by  means  of  a  reading  scale  in  a  microscope.  The  excursion  of 
the  triangle  when  the  fork  produces  a  just  audible  tone  is  thus 
secured.  Since  the  sound  varies  with  the  square  of  the  amplitude 
records  of  the  minimum  intensity  must  be  in  terms  of  the  squares 
of  these  amplitudes. 

Gradenigo  (21)  energizes  the  prongs  of  tuning  forks  in  a 
definite  manner  by  means  of  a  trigger  attachment.  Four  dif¬ 
ferent  initial  intensities  are  provided. 

Urban  (60)  secured  variations  in  intensity  by  turning  an  elec¬ 
trically  operated  fork  so  that  he  was  able  to  secure  interference 
between  the  sounds  from  the  two  prongs  as  sources. 

Other  sources  of  sound.  The  singing  flame  and  electric  arc 
have  been  widely  used.  Jastrow  (26)  thinks  the  singing  flame  is 
successful  because  it  is  possible  to  measure  the  amplitude  of  the 
vibration  of  the  flame  by  microscopic  methods  and  to  secure 
records  as  to  the  quality  and  frequency  by  the  photographic 
method. 

H.  Lichte  (32)  using  the  singing  arc  with  frequencies  between 
220  and  846  finds  that  the  sound  intensity  is  proportional  to  the 
arc  length  and  to  the  square  of  the  alternating  current  strength. 

Lucae  (33)  made  a  sonometer  in  which  the  pressure  of  the 
air  accompanying  enunciation  impinged  upon  a  movable  dia¬ 
phragm.  The  amplitude  of  the  movement  was  recorded  from  the 
excursions  of  a  small  pointer  attached  to  the  diaphragm. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


5i 


Urbantschitch  (58)  designed  a  harmonica  to  produce  sounds 
of  uniform  strength  by  means  of  resonators  of  variable  lengths 
attached  to  the  instrument.  Toepler  and  Boltzmann  (62)  used 
a  comparatively  loud  sound  from  an  organ  pipe  and  after  remov¬ 
ing  the  observer  to  such  a  distance  that  the  sound  was  just  audi¬ 
ble  they  computed  the  energy  value  for  this  tone  upon  Helm¬ 
holtz'  generalizations.  Wolfe  (75)  proceeded  in  a  similar  fash¬ 
ion  with  the  sound  of  a  blown  bottle.  Webster  (69)  has  de¬ 
signed  an  instrument  called  a  ‘"phone”  for  producing  a  constant 
sound  and  another,  a  “phonometer,”  far  measuring  the  intensity 
of  this  sound  in  absolute  units.  Stern’s  (56)  tone  variators  are 
based  on  the  principle  of  the  blown  bottle.  The  siren  is  capable 
of  producing  a  wide  range  of  frequencies  but  has  small  possibili¬ 
ties  for  intensity  variation. 

The  chief  value  of  devices  like  those  mentioned  is  limited  to 
determining  the  residual  hearing  in  very  advanced  cases  of  deaf¬ 
ness. 

Noises.  The  inability  of  experimenters  to  secure  accurate  con¬ 
trol  of  the  intensity  of  the  sound  produced  by  tuning  forks  and 
the  other  devices  mentioned  above  has  led  many  to  attempt  the 
construction  of  an  appliance  which  would  produce  a  noise  that 
might  be  of  standardized  intensity  and  quality.  Because  of  the 
immediate  availability  of  the  watch,  it  has  been  a  common  means 
for  measuring  hearing  ability.  The  Society  for  Otological  Re¬ 
search  (12)  quoted  above,  recommends  the  watch  in  addition  to 
the  voice  and  the  Politzer  acoumeter  (38). 

In  the  instruments  presented  by  De  Bechterew  (13),  Wundt 
(76),  Lehman  (31),  Sanford  (46),  Kampfe  (27),  Henry  (24), 
and  others,  the  principle  of  the  moving  pendulum  is  adopted.  A 
small  weight  attached  to  the  pendulum  may  be  raised  to  different 
heights.  In  falling  the  weight  strikes  a  small  cylinder  of  steel 
at  the  bottom  of  the  arc.  Gradenigo  (20)  uses  this  principle  and 
has  cylinders  of  various  sizes  which  give  tones  of  varying  pitch. 
Amberg  (2)  uses  a  freely  falling  body  which  strikes  against  a 
metallic  block.  Toulouse,  Vaschiede  and  Pierron  (61)  substi¬ 
tute  a  falling  drop  of  water  for  a  solid  body. 

Electrical  devices.  The  sonometer  by  Hughes  (25)  was  one 


52 


CORDIA  C.  BUNCH 


of  the  first  in  which  an  attempt  was  made  to  secure  accurate 
control  of  the  intensity  of  the  sound  in  the  telephone.  He  used 
the  principle  of  the  sliding  inductorium  and  established  a  zero 
point  by  using  two  opposing  primary  coils.  For  producing  a 
tone  Hughes  used  a  Neefs  hammer.  The  acoumeter  described 
by  Urbantschitch  (59)  is  similar  in  construction. 

Stefanini  (53)  used  but  one  primary.  Seashore  (51)  varied 
the  intensity  in  his  audiometer  by  using  a  graded  series  of  sec¬ 
ondary  coils  over  a  stationary  primary  with  the  telephone.  The 
increments  for  the  forty  steps  of  intensity  are  made  psychologi¬ 
cally  equal  in  accordance  with  Weber’s  law.  To  produce  a  tone 
a  tuning  fork  of  desired  pitch  is  operated  in  the  primary  circuit. 

Campbell  ( 1 1 )  reports  a  simple  alternating  current  generator 
which  will  produce  a  small  current  of  pure  sine  wave  form.  It 
consists  essentially  of  an  electrically  operated  tuning  fork  to 
one  prong  of  which  is  attached  a  small  coil  with  its  axis  parallel 
to  the  prong.  When  the  fork  vibrates,  the  coil  oscillates  in  the 
field  of  an  external  magnet.  An  oscillating  current  is  in  this 
way  induced  in  the  coil  attached  to  the  prong. 

Rayleigh  (41)  produced  a  current  of  harmonic  type  by  rotat¬ 
ing  a  magnetized  watch  spring  in  the  field  of  a  strong  coil  in 
series  with  a  telephone.  The  magnet  was  fan-shaped  and  ro¬ 
tated  at  a  uniform  speed  by  means  of  a  steady  air  blast. 

Stefanini  (55)  modified  the  method  of  the  pendulum  to  pro¬ 
duce  a  pure  tone  by  electrical  methods.  The  weight  of  the  pen¬ 
dulum  was  a  small  arc  of  soft  iron  composed  of  several  uniform 
teeth.  As  the  pendulum  fell,  the  arc  of  iron  was  carried 
through  the  field  of  an  electric  magnet  in  series  with  a  telephone. 
The  magnetic  variations  caused  by  the  passage  of  the  iron  teeth 
through  the  field,  induced  an  oscillating  current  of  momentary 
duration  in  the  telephone  circuit.  The  tone  varied  with  the  num¬ 
ber  of  teeth,  their  size,  the  rate  of  fall,  and  the  original  impulse 
as  well  as  with  the  distance  from  the  magnet  to  the  path  of  the 
falling  arc. 

The  field  of  hearing 

The  field  of  hearing  based  on  a  time  ratio  of  audition  for  the 
different  tuning  forks  has  been  illustrated  by  various  writers. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


53 


The  fields  of  hearing  illustrated  by  Grant  (22)  are  based  on 
measurements  with  five  tuning  forks.  That  illustrated  by 
Pfaundler  and  Schlossman  (3 7)  is  for  fourteen  forks.  The  ex¬ 
tent  of  such  measurements  is  usually  determined  by  the  amount 
of  time  the  investigator  wishes  to  spend  in  making  the  examina¬ 
tion.  It  is  quite  common  to  find  only  three  forks  used,  one  for 
low  tones,  one  for  those  in  the  middle  of  the  musical  scale  and 
one  for  the  higher  tones.  Tone  gaps  or  defects  in  the  field  of 
hearing  lying  in  the  regions  between  these  forks  will  not  be 
noted,  and  to  that  extent  these  representations  are  misleading. 

The  field  of  hearing  by  Wien  (71)  was  secured  by  means  of 
a  telephone,  the  low  tones  being  secured  by  an  inductor  and  the 
higher  ones  by  an  alternating  current  siren.  After  measuring 
the  current  necessary  to  produce  a  just  audible  sound,  the  actual 
energy  was  calculated  and  the  curve  drawn  on  the  basis  of  this 
calculation.  No  attempts  were  made  to  explore  either  the  upper 
limit  or  the  lower.  Four  types  of  telephone  receiver  were  used 
in  order  to  show  any  peculiarities  which  might  occur  in  the  in¬ 
struments  themselves.  Any  irregularities  appearing  in  the  curves 
may  possibly  be  accounted  for  by  the  differences  in  construction 
of  the  instruments,  the  different  natural  frequencies  of  the  dia¬ 
phragms,  or  perhaps  by  fluctuations  in  attention  during  suc¬ 
cessive  tests. 

The  lower  limit.  The  lower  limit  of  tonality  is  placed  by 
various  writers  at  from  8  to  16  d.v.  There  is  no  sharp  de¬ 
marcation  in  the  passage  from  individual  puffs  to  a  continuous 
tone.  Indeed,  the  two  overlap.  The  individual  puffs  can  be 
heard  up  to  20  or  30  v.d.  Under  most  favorable  conditions, 
the  tonal  quality  is  clear  at  12  d.v.,  but  ordinarily  it  is  not  heard 
lower  than  14.  The  limits  set  vary  with  the  intensity,  duration 
and  timbre  of  tone.  Vance,  who  has  made  the  most  valuable 
investigation  of  this  subject  (63),  has  shown  that,  in  terms  of 
a  sounding  instrument,  such  as  the  tuning-fork,  the  principal 
conditions  are  essentially  the  amplitude,  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  disk,  its  proximity  to  the  ear,  its  position  before  the  ear,  the 
length  of  time  it  vibrates,  and  the  form  of  the  vibration.  In 
making  the  measurements,  we  aim  to  select  the  most  favorable 


54 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


conditions  and  to  control  these  by  keeping  them  constant.  Thus, 
the  standard  procedure  would  maintain  a  fork  with  a  io  cm. 
disk,  vibrating  for  five  seconds,  for  the  amplitude  of  io  mm., 
the  center  of  the  disk  being  as  close  to  the  opening  of  the  ear 
as  possible  without  touching  the  lapel  of  the  ear. 

The  upper  limit.  The  determination  of  the  upper  limit  of 
tonality  is  yet  an  unsolved  problem.  Since  the  work  of  Galton 
(18)  many  devices  have  been  constructed  for  the  production  of 
tones  of  high  pitch.  The  Edelmann  form  of  the  Galton  whistle 
is  still  largely  used.  In  using  the  whistles  care  must  always  be 
taken  to  exclude  the  possibility  of  mistaking  the  rush  of  the  air 
for  the  shrill  whistling  sound.  One  may  easily  check  the  re¬ 
sults  by  grasping  the  mouth  of  the  whistle  between  the  thumb  and 
finger  so  that  the  air  column  cannot  vibrate.  Only  the  rush  of 
the  wind  is  then  audible.  Koenig  made  a  series  of  forks  which 
were  said  to  reach  as  high  as  90,000  s.v.  He  found  that  for  him¬ 
self  the  upper  limit  was  lowered  with  advancing  age.  At  41  he 
was  able  to  hear  to  23,000  d.v.  while  at  57  he  could  only  hear 
to  18,432  d.v. 

Schwendt  (49)  used  the  Kundt's  dust  tube  method  for  de¬ 
termining  the  actual  pitch  of  tones  near  the  upper  limit.  He 
found  the  upper  limit  with  Koenig’s  bars  to  be  20,480  d.v. :  with 
Koenig’s  tuning  forks  21,845  d.v.;  with  Galton's  whistle  21,845 
d.v. ;  and  with  the  Edelmann  modification  of  the  Galton  whistle 
27,361  d.v.  He  found  that  the  frequency  of  G8  of  Appunn’s 
series  of  forks  was  between  10,000  and  11,000  d.v.  instead  of 
50,880  s.v.  for  which  it  was  calibrated.  He  says  instruments 
have  not  been  made  which  will  produce  40,000  d.v.  and  tones  of 
that  frequency  cannot  be  heard. 

Schulze  (47)  thinks  that  no  matter  what  the  intensity  may  be 
the  upper  limit  is  the  same,  namely,  20,000  d.v.  This  differs 
radically  from  the  results  obtained  by  Scripture  (50)  who,  using 
the  Galton  whistle  and  air  pressure  of  known  values,  found  that 
the  upper  limit  increased  almost  proportionally  with  the  pressure. 
These  and  other  discrepancies  lead  Hegner  (23)  to  think  that 
the  Galton  whistle  should  not  be  used  for  hearing  tests.  He 
recommends  that  the  monochord  of  Schultze  as  modified  by 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


55 


Struycken  (57)  be  substituted  for  the  Galton  whistle  since  it  is 
much  more  reliable.  Helmholtz  speaks  favorably  of  the  mono¬ 
chord  because  of  the  possibilities  of  securing  observations  of  the 
perception  of  tones  by  bone  conduction.  The  tones  of  the  lower 
octaves  secured  by  transverse  vibrations  and  the  high  tones  se¬ 
cured  by  longitudinal  vibrations  make  the  instrument  useful  for 
securing  results  throughout  a  considerable  range.  The  high 
tones  on  the  monochord  are  very  faint  and  may  be  mistaken  for 
the  rubbing  of  the  sponge  against  the  wire.  This  may  be  checked 
by  rubbing  it  against  the  steel  frame.  The  applicability  of  the 
instrument  for  testing  perception  by  bone  conduction  is  a  point 
in  its  favor  in  certain  pathological  cases. 

Birnbaum  (9)  has  used  a  telephone  with  some  success  and 
thinks  that  the  upper  limit  is  about  25,000  d.v.  As  stated  before, 
the  telephone  with  its  immense  number  of  turns  of  wire  offers 
great  impedance  to  very  high  frequency  currents  so  it  is  doubtful 
if  very  intense  tones  near  the  upper  limit  of  audition  can  be  se¬ 
cured.  Some  experimenters  find  that  the  telephone  is  ruined  by 
the  heat  of  the  current  which  is  necessary  to  produce  tones  of 
high  frequency. 

All  of  these  instruments  have  been  available  for  comparison  in 
the  present  study,  but  their  calibrations  have  not  been  checked 
by  physical  measurements.  The  writer  finds  that  at  the  age  of 
35  he  can  hear  tones  calibrated  on  the  several  instruments  as  fol¬ 
lows :  49,000  s.v.  (24,500  d.v.)  with  the  Galton  whistle,  49,152 
s.v.  with  one  set  of  cylinders,  40,960  s.v.  with  the  other,  and  with 
the  monochord  19,000  d.v.  by  air  conduction,  and  20,000  d.v.  by 
bone  conduction. 

The  acoustic  macula.  Rayleigh  (43)  measured  the  actual  in¬ 
tensity  of  the  sound  reaching  the  ear  from  a  body  vibrating  at  a 
distance.  The  sources  used  were  cans  vibrating  as  bells.  These 
were  energized  electromagnetically  in  order  to  eliminate  acces¬ 
sory  noises.  If  the  energy  necessary  to  produce  an  audible  tone 
at  a  frequency  of  512  d.v.  is  taken  as  unity,  the  ratios  for  the 
various  frequencies  are  as  follows: 


Frequency 

Ratio 

512 

1.0 

256 

1.6 

128 

3-2 

85 

6.4 

56 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


No  attempt  was  made  in  this  series  of  experiments  to  determine 
which  frequency  has  the  minimum  threshold  but  Rayleigh 
thought  it  would  not  be  reached  under  1024  d.v.  or  perhaps  not 
until  an  octave  higher. 

Abraham  ( 1 )  varied  the  experiment  by  measuring  the  air  pres¬ 
sure  produced  by  the  vibrating  telephone  membrane  and  con¬ 
cluded  that  for  a  normal  ear,  with  frequencies  between  250  d.v. 
and  500  d.v.,  the  pressure  necessary  to  produce  an  auditory  sen¬ 
sation  was  0.0000004  mm.  of  mercury. 

Rayleigh  (44)  also  made  a  calculation  of  this  nature  and  found 
that  a  condensation  of  4.6  x  io'9  ergs  at  a  frequency  of  512  d.v. 
was  sufficient  to  produce  an  audible  tone.  Zwaardemaker  and 
Quix  (79)  found  that  1.3  x  io-5  gave  an  audible  tone  while 
Wead  (68)  found  it  to  be  1.1  x  io-8  and  Wien  (72)  placed  the 
value  at  612  x  io-8. 

By  means  of  his  electric  micrometer,  Shaw  (52)  measured  the 
amplitude  of  vibration  of  the  telephone  receiver  for  the  mini¬ 
mum  impulsive  sound  caused  by  a  break  in  the  circuit.  He  found 
that  an  amplitude  of  0.4  /x/x  was  just  audible,  50  /x/x  comfortably 
loud,  1000  /x/x  uncomfortably  loud,  and  5000  /x/x  overpowering. 
His  threshold  of  audibility  is  calculated  since  he  was  not  able  to 
measure  distances  less  than  2.1  /x/x. 

Franke  (17)  used  the  optical  interference  method  and  decided 
that  1.2  /x/x  gave  the  least  audible  impulsive  sound.  He  secured 
measurements  to  52  /x/x  and  assumed  a  straight  line  relationship 
between  the  origin  of  his  curve  and  the  limit  of  measurement  in 
calculating  the  minimum  audible  sound. 

The  general  trend  of  opinion  of  experimenters  using  tones 
which  cover  a  wide  range  in  the  field  of  hearing  seems  to  indi¬ 
cate  that  there  is  a  region  of  greatest  sensitivity.  It  has  been 
shown  in  pathological  cases  that  this  region  actually  resists  the 
ravages  of  disease  or  trauma  better  than  the  remainder  of  the 
field.  Wilson  (73)  in  all  cases  of  shell  concussion,  finds  not 
only  a  diminution  for  all  tones  in  the  field  of  hearing  but  also 
the  least  decrease  in  sensitivity  for  tones  between  512  d.v.  and 
1024  d.v.  Wells  (70)  in  studying  the  effects  of  fatigue  has 
shown  that  the  tones  in  the  middle  range  are  least  liable  to 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


57 


fatigue  and  that  the  lower  and  higher  tones  are  especially  suscep¬ 
tible  to  it.  Rayleigh  (42)  had  previously  noted  the  extreme  lia¬ 
bility  to  fatigue  for  tones  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tonal  range. 
Wead,  however,  (67)  concludes  that,  independent  of  the  in¬ 
tensity  of  the  tone,  within  experimental  limits  the  sensibility  of 
the  ear  is  the  same  for  tones  of  every  pitch.  Stefanini  (54) 
subjects  his  findings  to  severe  criticism.  Wolf  (74)  in  discuss¬ 
ing  the  same  point  says,  “The  normal  ear  is  most  sensitive  to  the 
most  acute  tones  of  speech  so  that  those  tones  which  lie  in  the 
middle  portion  of  the  fourth  octave  and  approach  the  proper 
tone  (resonating  frequency)  of  the  auditory  canal  and  membrani 
tympani  (e4  to  g4)  may  cause,  under  certain  circumstances,  the 
sensation  of  pain.  The  faintest  pianissimo  of  the  violin  up  to 
e4  is  distinctly  heard  in  a  large  hall  to  the  last  seats.  I  believe 
that  the  fibres  of  the  zona  pectinata  which  vibrate  in  unison  with 
the  most  acute  tones,  are  the  smallest  and  most  delicate.”  Wien 
(71)  and  Zwaardemaker  and  Quix  (79)  have  shown  results  indi¬ 
cating  the  same  region  of  extreme  sensitivity  which,  according  to 
the  findings  of  Miller,  is  in  the  region  covered  by  the  sounds  of 
the  human  voice. 

Wanner  (66)  concluded  that  the  ear  was  deaf  for  speech  if 
it  was  unable  to  hear  the  a1  tuning  fork  by  aerial  conduction. 
Zwaardemaker  (78)  places  the  region  in  the  zone  from  a1  to  e3. 

So  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  determine,  there  is  in  the 
cochlea  no  specialization  of  structure  to  account  for  this  region 
of  maximum  sensitivity.  The  almost  universal  agreement  on 
the  part  of  investigators  leads  us  to  think  that  any  acceptable 
theory  of  hearing  must  account  for  its  presence.  The  results 
given  in  Chapter  III  of  the  examination  of  the  effects  of  the 
various  auditory  lesions  adds  evidence  on  this  point. 

The  Iozva  Pitch  Range  Audiometer 

The  present  demand  of  examiners  is  illustrated  by  the  Bezold 
continuous  tone  series  referred  to  above.  Determination  of  the 
limits  of  audition  in  particular  regions  is  not  sufficient;  it  must 
be  possible  to  ascertain  the  threshold  of  audibility  for  any  or  all 
tones.  The  Bezold  series  offers  an  accurate  control  of  quality  but 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


58 

not  of  intensity.  A  series  of  adjustable  length  organ  pipes,  a 
piano,  a  complete  series  of  tone  variators,  a  monochord,  a  vibrat¬ 
ing  flame,  or  any  instrument  capable  of  producing  a  wide  range 
of  frequencies  would  answer  the  same  purpose  save  that  the  in¬ 
tensities  would  be  less  in  control  and  the  wave  less  harmonic  in 
form.  The  use  of  a  large  number  of  forks  or  pipes  in  tests  is 
impossible  from  a  practical  consideration  if  for  no  other  reason 
than  the  amount  of  time  and  energy  consumed.  The  ideal  test 
should  be  of  such  a  nature  that  the  sensitivity  of  the  ear  through¬ 
out  the  entire  range  of  audible  tones  could  be  quickly  and  ac¬ 
curately  determined.  The  tones  must  be  relatively  pure.  Quan¬ 
titative  measurements  may  be  in  either  relative  or  absolute  terms. 
The  test  must  be  capable  of  standardization,  require  a  minimum 
of  time,  be  capable  of  instant  verification,  and  require  a  mini¬ 
mum  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  examiner.  To  meet  these  con¬ 
ditions,  we  have  designed  a  new  pitch  range  audiometer.  A 
brief  history  of  its  development  will  be  of  interest  to  other  ex¬ 
perimenters  in  this  field. 

Duddell  (15)  constructed  a  high  frequency  generator  of  very 
simple  form  for  work  in  wireless  telegraphy.  The  fundamental 
parts  of  the  generator  were  a  toothed  wheel  rotating  in  a  mag¬ 
netic  field.  The  rotation  caused  variations  in  the  magnetic  flow 
across  the  air-gap  between  the  magnet  and  the  teeth  of  the 
notched  wheel,  which  in  turn  induced  an  oscillating  current  in  a 
coil  surrounding  the  magnet.  With  this  type  frequencies  as 
high  as  120,000  per  second  were  secured.  This  generator  was 
used  only  for  wireless  telegraphy.  The  current  generated  was 
of  considerable  magnitude  and  little  consideration  was  given  to 
the  current  wave  form.  The  generator  constructed  by  Rayleigh 
(41),  as  described  above,  would  serve  for  generating  tones  of  a 
considerable  range  of  frequencies  but  the  current  would  be  small 
and  the  resulting  tones  would  probably  be  too  faint  for  clinical 
use.  The  necessary  air  pressure  for  rotating  the  magnet  limits 
its  utility  since  a  means  of  producing  this  pressure  is  not  always 
available.  Slight  variations  in  the  form  of  Stefanini’s  generator 
(55),  described  above,  would  make  it  possible  to  produce  a  con¬ 
siderable  range  of  frequencies  for  tones  of  short  duration.  A 


* 


I 


i 


Fig. 
model ; 


\. — The  Iowa  Pitch  Range  Audiometer:  a,  first  model;  b,  second 
c  and  d,  fourth  model. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


59 


mercury  lamp  of  the  type  used  in  the  Vreeland  oscillator  (65) 
would,  by  a  suitable  arrangement  of  capacities  and  inductances, 
provide  a  wide  range  of  frequencies  but  each  frequency  requires 
a  different  inductance  and  capacity  with  the  accompanying  elec¬ 
trical  connections.  This  would  be  true  also  for  any  of  the  various 
types  of  vacuum  tubes  now  so  commonly  used  in  wireless  tele¬ 
phony  and  telegraphy.  For  practical  use  in  the  hands  of  one 
unskilled  in  the  use  of  complicated  electrical  apparatus  this  type 
of  generator,  while  offering  many  advantages  for  this  study, 
seemed  inadvisable.  Gradenigo  (19)  has  a  vibrating  metallic 
ribbon  for  producing  an  electrical  current  of  low  frequency  but 
of  very  pure  wave  form.  The  frequency  of  the  oscillating  cur¬ 
rent  must  always  approach  that  of  the  vibrating  ribbon.  When 
used  with  a  telephone  the  sound  is  much  more  intense  than  that 
obtainable  with  the  low  forks. 

Development  of  first  type  of  generator.  In  the  present  enter¬ 
prise  a  Leeds-Northrop  Generator  No.  39226  was  first  examined. 
It  consists  of  a  motor  with  an  attached  notched  wheel.  As  the 
motor  rotates,  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  pass  through  the  field  of 
a  horse-shoe  shaped  electro-magnet.  The  speed  of  the  motor  was 
constant  except  for  the  possibilities  of  slight  adjustment  with  the 
governor.  The  pitch  of  the  tone  produced  was  approximately 
1100  d.v.  per  second.  However,  as  the  machine  slowly  gains 
momentum,  a  range  of  tones  between  the  lowest  audible  tone  and 
the  maximum  (1100  d.v.)  could  be  heard  in  the  telephone.  When 
driven  by  an  independent  pulley  attached  to  the  shaft  and  con¬ 
nected  to  an  adjustable  speed  motor,  it  was  possible  to  produce 
and  maintain  with  fair  constancy  any  tone  within  these  limits. 

In  order  to  approach  more  closely  the  ideal  test  requirements, 
it  was  necessary  to  secure  a  much  wider  range  of  frequencies  than 
that  provided  by  this  generator.  For  preliminary  trials  a  cast 
iron  gear  wheel  6  inches  in  diameter,  with  96  teeth,  No.  16 
B  &  S  gauge,  was  mounted  on  the  shaft  of  a  variable  speed 
motor.  (See  Fig.  Aa.)  After  grinding  the  wheel  so  that  the 
radius  was  constant,  a  bipolar  magnet  from  a  hand-type  telephone 
receiver  was  mounted  so  that  the  teeth  of  the  gear-wheel  passed 
through  the  magnetic  field.  The  two  coils  at  the  extremities  of 


6o 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


the  magnet  were  connected  in  series  with  a  telephone.  Prelimi¬ 
nary  tests  showed  that  the  quality  of  the  tone  produced  by  this 
generator  was  relatively  pure,  that  the  intensity  was  adequate, 
and  that  a  range  of  speed  between  2  and  100  revolutions  per  sec¬ 
ond  was  available.  With  the  96  teeth  on  the  gear-wheel,  pitches 
between  200  d.v.  and  10,000  d.v.  should  have  been  available  for 
our  work.  However,  as  the  speed  of  the  motor  increased,  35 
rotations  per  second  produced  not  only  the  tone  due  to  the  pass¬ 
ing  of  the  teeth  before  the  magnet  but  also  an  accessory  tone 
corresponding  in  pitch  with  the  rate  of  the  rotating  armature  and 
of  an  intensity  disturbing  to  the  observer.  For  tests  up  to  and 
including  3100  d.v.  per  second  the  tones  were  sufficiently  pure  so 
far  as  indicated  by  psychological  observation.  No  method  for 
determining  the  character  of  the  wave  form  was  available.  An 
oscillograph  would  analyze  only  currents  of  much  greater  mag¬ 
nitude.  But  observers  experienced  in  the  field  of  acoustics  were 
unable  to  determine  the  presence  of  overtones  when  the  intensi¬ 
ties  were  moderate.  The  similarity  between  the  tones  in  the  re¬ 
ceiver  and  those  from  tuning  forks  was  remarkable.  But  as  the 
telephone  diaphragm  has  peculiarities  it  is  not  probable  that  the 
tones  were  absolutely  pure. 

The  use  of  the  telephone  in  tests  of  audition  is  subject  to  criti¬ 
cism  because  of  the  great  variation  in  the  different  types.  It  is 
probable  that  no  two  telephones  are  identical.1 

During  the  early  part  of  this  study,  one  watch  case  type  of 
receiver  was  used  over  a  considerable  period  of  time.  Any 

1  A  personal  letter  from  the  Research  Department  of  the  Western  Electric 
Company  concerning  this  subject  contains  the  following:  '‘The  hand  type 
telephone  receiver  equipped  with  a  permanent  magnet  as  exemplified  in  our 
standard  144W  receiver  is  very  constant  over  considerable  periods  of  time. 
The  magnet  will  not  weaken  appreciably  unless  subjected  to  very  severe 
demagnetizing  currents  in  the  receiver  winding,  and  even  then  will  not  be 
affected  to  any  great  extent.  More  or  less  trouble  has  been  experienced  from 
weakening  of  the  magnets  of  most  designs  of  watch  case  receiver  on  the 
market  and  in  general,  it  would  hardly  be  advisable  to  use  this  type  of  re¬ 
ceiver  where  extreme  constancy  is  desired.  It  has  been  our  experience  that 
hand  type  receivers  will  however  be  unchanged  for  periods  of  several  years. 
We  have  no  evidence  indicating  any  particular  limits  to  the  life  of  the  magnet 
of  such  an  instrument.” 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


61 


hearing  test  that  we  could  devise  failed  to  show  any  appreciable 
change  in  its  efficiency.  It  was  abandoned  after  the  above  let¬ 
ter  was  received  in  favor  of  one  of  the  standard  70  ohm  hand 
type.  As  to  the  possibility  of  interchanging  receivers,  a  test  of 
six  receivers  of  the  same  type  and  age  showed  that  there  were 
differences  in  the  curves  given  in  hearing  tests  with  an  experi¬ 
enced  observer,  these  differences  were  less  within  one  series  than 
those  which  came  from  several  tests  with  the  same  receiver  due 
to  the  fluctuations  in  attention  or  changes  in  the  physical  con¬ 
dition  of  the  observer. 

Intensity  variations.  Four  varieties  of  electrical  control  of 
intensity  were  tried,  a.  A  lever  arrangement  varying  the  dis¬ 
tance  between  the  teeth  of  the  rotating  wheel  and  the  magnet 
provides  a  mechanical  means  since  the  magnetic  flux  varies  in¬ 
versely  with  the  distance  across  the  air  gap.  (See  Fig.  Aa.) 
b.  An  audiometer  of  the  Seashore  model  (51)  provides  a  simple 
electrical  method  but  the  nature  of  the  instrument  is  such  that  it 
necessitates  the  installation  of  a  high  impedance  in  the  generator 
circuit  because  of  the  inductive  winding  of  the  primary  coil.  The 
high  impedance  of  the  magnet  coils  reduces  the  intensity  for 
high  frequencies  very  materially  and  the  coils  of  the  audiometer 
would  cause  a  still  greater  decrease,  c.  High  non-inductive  resis¬ 
tances  mounted  directly  in  series  will  also  decrease  the  current  in 
a  direct  ratio  but  the  production  of  tones  of  the  magnitude  neces- 
sarv  for  the  determination  of  the  threshold  of  sensitivitv  would 
require  enormous  resistances  with  the  consequent  prohibitive 
cost.  d.  The  phonometer,2  a  type  of  potentiometer  designed  by 
Ford,  a  much  more  feasible  method  of  securing  the  necessary 
intensity  variations.  A  series  of  non-inductive  resistances  with 
approximately  400  per  cent  increase  in  the  successive  coils  and  a 
total  resistance  of  1200  ohms  is  installed  in  series  with  the  gen¬ 
erator.  Between  successive  resistances,  terminals  are  provided 
for  the  telephone  connections.  The  amount  of  current  passing 
through  the  telephone  is  determined  by  the  potential  drop  across 

2  A  detailed  description  of  the  phonometer  has  not  been  published.  The 
instrument  was  designed  for  use  in  telephony  by  Professor  A.  H.  Ford  of 
the  College  of  Engineering. 


62 


CORDIA  C.  BUNCH 


its  terminals.  Thus  if  the  telephone  is  in  parallel  with  a  high 
resistance,  a  large  current  will  pass  through  it.  If  no  tone  is 
desired,  the  drop  across  the  terminals  should  be  reduced  to  nil. 

Accessory  sounds.  The  problem  of  eliminating  the  accessory 
sounds  mentioned  above  was  next  attacked.  The  range  provided 
was  not  adequate.  The  extension  of  this  range  necessitated  the 
reduction  of  all  accessory  noises  to  such  an  intensity  that  they 
would  cease  to  be  a  disturbing  factor.  The  sound  which  caused 
the  disturbance  in  this  case  apparently  came  from  the  rotating 
armature  of  the  motor.  A  shield  of  soft  iron  was  built  about 
the  gear-wheel  to  protect  it  from  the  magnetic  field  of  the  arma¬ 
ture.  This  failed  to  eliminate  the  disturbing  sound.  The  wheel 
was  next  removed  from  the  shaft  of  the  motor,  mounted  on 
separate  bearings  and  driven  by  a  belt  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Tests 
showed  the  presence  of  the  same  disturbing  sounds. 

Two  factors  were  not  under  control,  viz.,  the  bearings  and 
the  metal  of  the  wheel.  The  assumption  that  some  of  the  ac¬ 
cessory  tones  were  caused  by  inequalities  in  the  structure  of  the 
cast  iron  wheel  proved  to  be  true.  A  twenty  inch  wheel  of  the 
spoked  type  was  mounted  in  the  bearings  used  before.  Tests 
showed  not  only  the  presence  of  the  original  disturbing  sounds 
but  also  another  which  corresponded  in  frequency  with  the  rate 
at  which  the  spokes  of  the  wheel  passed  the  magnet.  The  in¬ 
crease  in  mass  at  the  junction  of  the  spokes  and  rim  causes  un¬ 
equal  rates  of  cooling  with  consequent  differences  in  the  mole¬ 
cular  structure. 

Next  a  twelve  inch  plate  of  quarter  inch  boiler  iron  was  cut 
into  a  wheel  with  500  teeth.  It  was  thought  that  a  rolled  metal 
would  be  more  nearly  uniform  in  structure  than  ordinary  cast 
iron.  When  this  was  tested  the  telephone  showed  the  presence 
of  the  same  accessory  noises.  It  was  evident  that  the  metal  must 
be  more  uniform  than  any  that  could  be  secured  by  the  process 
of  rolling.  Some  cast  iron  plates  were  ordered  from  the  foun¬ 
dry  with  instructions  that  the  mixing  and  pouring  be  done  with 
as  much  skill  as  possible  in  order  to  secure  uniformity  through¬ 
out.  Three  of  these  plates  were  discarded  before  the  teeth  were 
cut  because  of  the  presence  of  obvious  inequalities  in  the  form 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


63 


of  blow  holes.  A  fourth  appeared  to  be  without  flaws.  This 
was  annealed,  cut  to  shape,  ground  accurately,  and  150  teeth 
were  cut  in  the  rim.  The  same  disturbing  sounds  were  still  evi¬ 
dent.  In  addition  to  this  defect,  because  of  the  internal  tension, 
the  wheel  warped  three  thousandths  of  an  inch  over  night.  An 
impulsive  sound  in  the  telephone  indicated  the  presence  of  this 
exaggerated  inequality  each  time  it  passed  the  magnet.  If  the 
speed  increased,  this  became  a  tone  of  the  same  frequency  as  the 
rate  of  rotation. 

The  next  step  in  construction  was  to  build  up  a  laminated 
wheel  of  rings  of  armature  iron.  The  thickness  of  the  rings 
was  first  accurately  measured  and  the  grain  of  the  metal  ex¬ 
amined  and  alternated  in  successive  layers.  After  grinding  the 
circumference,  150  teeth  were  cut  and  the  wheel  was  carefully 
balanced  on  its  shaft.  When  the  wheel  was  mounted  and  tried 
it  was  as  unsatisfactory  as  those  constructed  before. 

A  plate  of  billet  steel  nine  inches  in  diameter  and  one  inch 
thick  was  next  prepared.  Members  of  the  mechanical  engineer¬ 
ing  staff  assured  us  that  this  would  probably  be  the  best  means  of 
securing  uniform  metal.  After  cutting  the  plate  to  the  required 
dimensions  but  before  cutting  the  teeth,  the  circumference  was 
ground  so  that  no  inequality  in  the  surface  greater  than  .0025 
inch  existed.  Before  removing  the  plate  from  the  lathe  a  mag¬ 
net  was  mounted.  When  the  lathe  was  started  slowly,  impulsive 
tones  were  heard  in  the  telephone  which  was  connected  to  the 
mounted  magnet.  Increasing  the  rate  of  rotation  caused  the 
impulsive  sounds  to  blend  into  low  tones.  Because  of  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  chatter  marks  made  in  the  plate  by  the  cutter,  it  had  pre¬ 
viously  been  decided  that  these  marks  indicated  a  spot  which  was 
not  uniform.  The  test  with  the  telephone  seemed  to  justify  this 
conclusion. 

After  these  experiments  had  been  tried  and  found  unsatis¬ 
factory,  it  was  concluded  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  secure 
metal  of  such  uniformity  as  the  work  demanded.  A  radical 
change  in  construction  was  demanded. 

The  second  type  of  generator.  (See  Fig.  Ab.)  Our  previous 
work  had  shown  us  that  uniform  metal  could  not  be  secured. 


64 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


Therefore  a  generator  had  to  be  constructed  which  would  render 
such  inequalities  ineffective.  We  adopted  the  plan  of  using  as 
many  magnets  as  there  were  teeth  in  the  rotating  wheel.  Under 
these  conditions,  should  there  be  any  inequality  in  the  iron,  there 
would  be  no  sudden  approach  of  this  part  to  any  one  magnet  as 
it  would  be  in  the  same  relationship  to  all  the  magnets. 

A  rim  was  cut  on  the  lateral  surface  of  the  plate  of  billet  steel 
just  mentioned  and  140  radial  teeth  were  cut  in  it.  Eight  thou¬ 
sandths  of  an  inch  away  and  parallel  to  this  a  stationary  plate 
of  cast  iron  was  placed  which  was  similarly  cut  with  140  radial 
teeth.  This  also  served  as  a  seat  for  a  bearing  of  the  rotating 
wheel. 

Each  tooth  of  the  stationary  plate  was  wrapped  with  ten  turns 
of  insulated  copper  wire.  The  plates  were  formed  into  a  U- 
shaped  magnet  by  placing  a  heavy  coil  between  them  and  about 
the  shaft.  Upon  trial,  a  receiver  connected  in  series  with  the 
coils  about  the  teeth  gave  no  evidence  of  accessory  sounds.  The 
tone  was,  however,  too  faint  to  use  in  cases  of  extreme  deafness. 
The  number  of  turns  about  the  teeth  was  increased  to  twenty- 
five  without  producing  sufficient  intensity.  To  double  the  wind¬ 
ings  would  mean  an  increase  of  four  times  the  current,  but  esti¬ 
mates  had  indicated  that  the  tone  should  be  from  ten  to  twenty 
times  as  loud.  To  take  250  turns  about  each  tooth  was  not 
possible  because  of  the  narrow  space  between  the  teeth.  Either 
the  form  of  the  teeth  had  to  be  altered  or  some  other  arrange¬ 
ment  provided  for  the  coils.  Therefor  a  coil  of  300  turns  was 
inserted  between  the  plates  as  a  secondary  to  the  magnetizing 
coil.  This  was  easily  wrapped,  was  not  liable  to  become  short 
circuited  by  scratching  the  insulation  against  the  sharp  teeth,  and 
was  found  to  produce  excellent  results.  But  the  tone  was  still 
too  faint  for  our  purpose.  The  coil  was  removed  and  another  of 
3,000  turns  installed  in  its  place.  This  with  the  adjustment  pro¬ 
vided  for  varying  the  air  gap  proved  adequate. 

Measurement  of  frequency.  The  earlier  types  of  generators 
which  had  been  constructed  were  not  provided  with  any  method 
for  determining  the  frequency  other  than  an  approximation  based 
on  the  position  of  the  rider  on  the  rheostat  of  the  adjustable 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING  65 

speed  motor.  This  varied  greatly  with  the  external  load.  A 
more  accurate  method  was  desirable. 

The  stroboscopic  method,  as  later  more  fully  developed  by 
Zuehl  (77)  was  attempted.  A  disk  of  cardboard  with  a  regular 
arrangement  of  circular  holes  was  attached  to  the  rotating  shaft. 
A  similar  disk  was  mounted  on  a  uniformly  rotating  plate  situ¬ 
ated  below  the  first  one.  The  experimenter,  by  observing  the 
row  of  holes  which  apparently  stood  still  on  the  lower  disk  was 
able  to  determine  the  rate  of  rotation  of  the  upper  one.  This 
method  was  found  to  be  inexpensive  but  rather  complicated  mat¬ 
ters  since  it  necessitated  the  use  of  an  additional  disk  rotating 
at  constant  speed. 

The  Frahm  type  of  frequency  meter,  an  instrument  of  the  vi¬ 
brating  reed  type,  was  available  but  a  special  model  covering  the 
range  desired  would  be  so  expensive  as  to  be  prohibitive. 

Several  types  of  magnetic  and  centrifugal  tachometers  are 
on  the  market  but  these  do  not  offer  possibilities  of  removal  to 
any  great  distance  from  the  generator  which  experience  has 
shown  to  be  extremely  desirable.  The  electric  tachometer,  a  form 
of  which  is  shown  mounted  at  the  top  of  the  tripod  in  Fig.  Ab, 
consists  of  a  small  generator.  Since  the  voltage  with  this  type 
of  generator  varies  with  the  rate  of  the  rotation,  a  voltmeter 
which  is  attached  was  calibrated  in  vibrations  per  second  and 
the  frequency  ascertained  at  once.  It  is  also  possible  to  remove 
the  voltmeter  to  any  required  distance. 

With  the  machine  shown,  frequencies  as  high  as  7070  per 
second  were  obtainable.  This  was  the  speed  limit  of  the  loaded 
motor.  Tones  as  low  as  30  d.v.  per  second  could  be  secured  by 
means  of  a  light  brake  on  the  rotating  plate.  The  charts  shown 
later  which  cover  this  range,  were  made  from  tests  using  this 
type  of  machine. 

The  third  type  of  generator.  The  range  of  frequencies  given 
(30  d.v.  to  7070  d.v.),  while  offering  much  greater  opportunity 
for  examination  and  diagnosis  than  the  type  formerly  used,  was 
deemed  inadequate  for  the  present  purposes.  The  belt  driven 
generator  was  very  inconvenient.  It  was  highly  desirable  to 
have  the  experimenter  located  in  the  room  with  the  observer. 


66 


CORDIA  C.  BUNCH 


This  was  obviously  impossible  where  it  is  necessary  to  use  a 
mechanical  brake  to  secure  the  low  frequencies. 

To  eliminate  the  belt  drive  and  secure  the  low  frequencies,  a 
small  generator  similar  in  construction  to  that  already  in  use 
except  that  the  teeth  were  fifteen  in  number,  was  attached  to  the 
top  of  the  rotating  plate  of  the  generator.  Coils  similar  to  those 
used  in  the  large  plate  were  inserted.  A  switch  determined  the 
plate  to  be  magnetized.  Another  threw  the  desired  generator  in 
series  with  the  telephone.  Since  the  lowest  speed  obtainable  was 
two  rotations  per  second,  the  fifteen  teeth  in  the  small  wheel 
gave  a  low  limit  of  30  d.v.  Before  attaching  this  double  gen¬ 
erator  directly  to  the  motor,  a  belt  was  attached  and  the  arrange¬ 
ment  tested.  The  residual  magnetism  in  the  small  plate  when 
once  magnetized  caused  fluctuations  which  were  carried  to  the 
telephone  when  only  the  large  wheel  was  in  series  with  it.  This 
caused  a  second  tone  in  the  telephone.  It  was  therefore  evident 
that  the  direct  attachment  of  the  twTo  generators  was  impractic¬ 
able. 

The  fourth  type  of  generator.  Fig.  Ac  illustrates  the  design 
finally  adopted.  Generator  A  which  produces  high  frequencies 
(to  15,000  d.v.)  has  a  rotating  wheel  of  billet  steel  nine  inches 
in  diameter,  with  150  teeth  cut  radially  (No.  8,  24  pitch,  B  &  S 
involute  gear  cutter).  The  stationary  plate  is  of  cast  iron  and 
the  radial  teeth  match  those  of  the  rotating  wheel.  The  bearings 
are  adjustable  in  all  directions  and  wick  oiled. 

The  generator  for  low  frequencies,  B,  (30  d.v.  to  the  lowest 
frequency  produced  by  the  large  generator)  is  of  cast  iron  cut 
with  fifteen  teeth  (No.  7,  10  pitch  B  &  S  involute  gear  cutter), 
two  cuts  being  necessary  to  make  the  spacing  between  the  teeth 
vary  by  the  width  of  the  teeth.  The  bearings  in  the  small  gen¬ 
erator  were  Radax  No.  ND  12,  New  Departure  single  row  ball 
bearings. 

The  motor,  C,  is  a  Westinghouse  y$  H.P.  compound,  no  volt, 
D.C.,  with  a  speed  of  1750  R.P.M.  This  was  rewound  to  give 
the  motor  a  speed  of  6000  R.P.M. 

The  electric  tachometer,  D,  is  type  M  200  F  by  the  Electric 
Tachometer  Corporation  of  Philadelphia. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


67 


Both  the  primary  and  secondary  coils  of  the  large  generator 
have  3000  turns.  The  primary  coil  is  of  No.  28  enameled  wire 
and  the  secondary  of  No.  36  double  silk  wrapped  wire.  The  coils 
of  the  large  wheel  are  fixed  in  beeswax  and  held  in  place  by 
strips  of  brass.  The  two  coils  of  the  small  wheel  have  4000  turns 
each,  the  wire  being  the  same  size  as  that  used  for  the  large 
wheel.  The  coils  are  wrapped  on  a  split  spool  of  brass  which  is 
held  in  place  by  friction. 

The  whole  is  mounted  on  a  cast  iron  base.  This  continuous 
base  makes  it  possible  for  the  mechanical  vibration  of  the  motor 
to  be  conducted  to  the  high  frequency  generator.  On  this  ac¬ 
count  the  tone  becomes  slightly  impure  for  the  very  high  fre¬ 
quencies,  and  special  instructions  must  be  given  to  the  observer 
if  it  is  desired  to  test  with  these  tones. 

The  control  board,  Fig.  Ad,  is  of  ^4  in.  asbestos  board  bound 
with  angle  iron  to  afford  rigidity  and  attachment  for  the  up¬ 
rights.  On  it  are  mounted  the  following:  (a)  starting  switch 
for  motor,  (b)  rheostat,  (c)  tachometer  scale,  (d)  signal  light, 
(e)  switch  for  telephone,  (f)  triple  contact  battery  switch,  (g) 
resistance  control. 

The  tachometer  scale  is  that  of  a  Weston  millivolt  meter  cali¬ 
brated  in  vibrations  per  second.  The  meter  is  mounted  beneath 
the  board. 

Procedure ,  Discussion  of  Cases  and  Conclusions 

Procedure.  The  technique  of  the  tests  is  simple.  The  board 
on  which  the  control  apparatus  is  mounted  is  placed  in  a  quiet 
room  so  that  outside  noises  will  not  disturb  the  attention  of  the 
observer.  The  receiver  is  held  at  the  ear  of  the  observer  and  he 
is.  instructed  to  indicate  by  some  noiseless  method  that  he  hears 
the  sound.  For  convenience  we  have  used  an  electric  key  and 
lamp.  The  patient  presses  the  key  and  lights  the  lamp  as  long 
as  he  hears  any  sound.  If  a  check  is  desired,  a  switch  leading  to 
the  telephone  is  opened  by  the  examiner.  Two  methods  of  mak¬ 
ing  determinations  are  possible.  One,  which  is  very  similar  to 
the  method  used  with  the  tuning  forks,  consists  in  adjusting  the 
speed  of  the  driving  motor  so  that  a  certain  fixed  tone  is  pro- 


68 


CORD l A  C.  BUNCH 


duced.  The  intensity  is  then  diminished  until  the  tone  is  no 
longer  audible.  This  method  offers  several  advantages  over  the 
tuning  fork  tests.  It  gives  greater  accuracy  as  to  quantitative 
values,  the  results  may  be  checked  without  loss  of  time,  and  no 
long  wait  is  necessary  to  determine  the  damping  time  of  the  fork. 

A  new  and  much  more  comprehensive  method  has  been  de¬ 
veloped.  By  this  method  the  intensity  is  fixed  at  a  certain  re¬ 
sistance  step  and  the  pitch  of  the  tone  is  changed.  W  hen  all  the 
audible  tones  at  this  intensity  step  are  determined,  the  next 
fainter  step  is  produced  and  the  audible  sounds  at  this  step  are 
determined.  This  process  is  repeated  until  only  inaudible  sounds 
are  produced.  With  this  method  loss  of  acuity  for  any  tone  will 
be  noted  as  the  pitch  gradually  changes. 

The  results  are  conveniently  indicated  on  a  chart  with  pitch 
or  frequencies  as  the  ordinates  and  the  intensity  steps  as  the 
abscissas.  The  points  at  which  the  observer  begins  and  ceases  to 
hear  are  recorded  by  dots  on  this  chart.  When  the  examination 
is  completed,  these  dots  are  joined  in  a  curve  indicating  the  field 
of  hearing.  Comparison  with  a  normal  curve  on  the  chart  re¬ 
veals  any  variation  from  the  normal.  In  this  procedure,  no 
tones  are  passed  over  untested,  the  results  may  be  checked  with¬ 
out  loss  of  time  and  each  test  at  decreasing  intensities  is  an  ad¬ 
ditional  check  on  previous  tests.  A  sound  of  continually  chang¬ 
ing  pitch  is  much  easier  to  follow  and  is  consequently  less  fa¬ 
tiguing  than  one  in  which  intensity  alone  is  changed.  The  time 
consumed  is  much  less  than  with  the  other  method  if  one  con¬ 
siders  the  amount  of  information  secured.  In  practice  the  time 
consumed  has  been  about  fifteen  minutes  for  both  ears.  If  the 
mentality  of  the  patient  is  below  normal  or  if  the  findings  are 
such  that  constant  checking  is  necessary,  a  longer  time  will  be  re¬ 
quired. 

The  chief  work  of  the  writer  has  been  the  development  of  the 
mechanical  details  of  the  audiometer.  As  the  development  of  the 
machine  progressed,  one  type  was  always  in  use  and  tests  were 
carried  on  throughout  the  whole  period.  With  the  several  types 
of  machines  different  forms  of  graphic  record  were  developed, 
as  will  be  observed  in  the  figures  which  follow.  Since  the  work 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


69 


was  largely  concerned  with  the  clinical  significance  of  the  tests, 
the  charts  given  will  be  those  selected  from  clinical  cases.  In 
each  case,  other  clinical  tests  have  been  made  and  a  diagnosis 
has  been  given  by  Dr.  Dean  and  his  assistants.1 

The  clinical  picture  is  without  significance  unless  a  normal 
curve  is  provided.  In  the  charts  which  follow,  normal  curves 
are  indicated  by  the  unbroken  lines.  These  normal  curves  were 
not  worked  out  with  extreme  care  as  to  age  and  general  condi¬ 
tion.  It  was  neither  desirable  nor  possible  to  make  a  survey  of 
a  large  number  of  cases  of  all  ages  and  send  them  to  the  clinic 
for  the  routine  tests.  With  the  first  design  of  the  apparatus  a 
norm  was  secured  by  averaging  the  results  of  the  best  eight  of 
thirty  S.A.T.C.  students.  In  the  second,  the  norm  was  secured 
from  tests  given  in  the  same  manner  to  twenty-five  university 
music  students.  In  the  third,  it  was  secured  from  examination 
of  adolescents  and  young  adults  who  were  known  to  have  clin- 
cally  perfect  hearing  and  who  were  available  in  the  clinic  for 
hearing  tests.  Detailed  results  of  these  tests  are  not  given.  The 
norm  indicates  only  the  average  of  the  best  cases  and  is  tentative. 

In  the  earlier  work,  an  attempt  was  made  to  determine  a  “nor¬ 
mal”  curve  for  various  diseases.  As  the  work  progressed,  it  be¬ 
came  evident  that  such  a  finding  would  be  impossible  because  the 
relative  development  of  the  disease  would  determine  the  general 
contour  of  the  curves  given.  However,  it  soon  became  appar¬ 
ent  that  certain  types  of  disease  gave  curves  very  similar  in  shape 
but  varying  in  height  on  the  chart  and  it  was  evident  that  the 
general  profile  rather  than  the  height  was  the  principal  diagnostic 
feature. 

The  most  significant  features  of  these  curves  are  the  tone  gaps 
and  islands.  A  complete  gap  can  be  defined  as  a  region  in  which 
the  loudest  tones  of  the  audiometer  for  certain  frequencies  are 

1  Cases  of  the  type  here  listed  have  been  reported  by  Dean,  L.  W.,  and 
Bunch,  C.  C.  The  Use  of  the  Pitch  Range  Audiometer  in  Otology.  The 
Laryngoscope,  St.  Louis,  August.  1919;  Dean,  L.  W.,  and  Bunch.  C.  C. 
Results  Obtained  from  One  Year’s  Use  of  the  Audiometer  in  the  Otological 
Clinic.  Trans,  of  the  Am.  Otol.  Soc.,  1920;  and  Dean,  L.  W.  Studies  in 
Otology  Using  the  Pitch  Range  Audiometer.  Am.  Laryng.,  Rhinol.  and 
Otol.  Soc..  June  3.  1921. 


70 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


ooooo  o  o  ooooo  o 
r*  U.UD  r  s  ujo  nc  ooo  t** 

r-*  r»  t"  »010  *“♦  O  t*  «0  O 

»■<  W  M  V  to  «>  b 

Pitch 


inaudible.  Partial  gaps  are  those  regions  where  the  tones  are 
heard  if  they  are  made  sufficiently  intense.  An  island  is  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  rest  of  the  field  of  hearing  by  gaps.  This  is  in 
accordance  with  the  nomenclature  of  Bezold  who  defined  a  gap 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING  71 

as  a  portion  of  the  range  in  which  the  tones  which  he  produced 
were  inaudible.  It  is  possible  and  probable  that  if  sufficient  in¬ 
tensities  had  been  available  all  total  gaps  would  have  been  re¬ 
duced  to  partials.  In  fact  the  resonance  theory  of  hearing  would 
apparently  necessitate  such  an  explanation. 

In  the  following  pages  significant  curves  of  ear  lesions  are 
shown  together  with  the  diagnosis  and  some  of  the  clinical  evi¬ 
dence  for  the  diagnosis. 

External  ear.  For  the  purpose  of  determining  the  exact  effect 
of  disturbances  in  the  external  auditory  canal,  a  condition  of 
deafness  was  created  in  the  ears  of  a  patient  who  had  clinically 
normal  hearing  by  packing  the  external  canal  with  boric  acid 
and  powder.  In  Fig.  1  the  hearing  before  the  ear  was  packed 
is  represented  by  a  line  of  dashes  and  that  afterwards  by  a  line 
of  dots.  Fig.  2  is  for  the  opposite  ear  of  the  same  individual. 
The  difference  in  the  height  of  the  two  curves  represents  the 
success  of  the  attempt  to  occlude  the  meatus.  The  particular 
feature  noticeable  is  the  uniform  lowering  of  the  curve  through¬ 
out  the  entire  range.  The  general  profile  of  the  curve  remains 
practically  unaltered. 

Figs.  3  and  4  were  taken  from  a  soldier  who  had  complained 
of  ear  trouble  while  he  was  in  service  in  France.  At  the  time  of 
this  trouble  the  army  surgeon  inserted  a  piece  of  medicated  cotton 
in  the  meatus  of  the  left2  ear.  So  far  as  the  patient  could  tell, 
this  cotton  had  never  been  removed.  When  he  entered  the  hos¬ 
pital  he  complained  of  tinnitis  in  the  affected  ear  and  there  was 
considerable  tenderness  in  front  of  the  meatus.  Inspection  showed 
that  the  cotton  had  remained  in  the  ear  since  the  time  of  his 
illness,  a  period  of  eighteen  months,  that  the  canal  wall  was  red¬ 
dened  and  inflamed  and  that  the  inflammation  extended  to  the 
tympanic  membrane.  The  two  charts  when  compared  show  the 
effect  of  the  removal  of  the  cotton  pellet. 

In  Fig.  5  is  shown  an  example  of  the  effect  of  impacted  ear 
wax  so  common  in  clinical  practice,  the  line  of  dashes  represents 

2  In  each  of  the  curves  following  unless  otherwise  stated,  the  hearing  for 
the  right  ear  is  indicated  by  a  line  of  dashes  and  that  for  the  left  by  a 
line  of  dots. 


72 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


the  hearing  after  the  removal  of  the  wax.  In  place  of  the  uni¬ 
form  lowering  of  the  curve  we  have  a  marked  lowering  for  the 
high  tones,  a  feature  which  cannot  be  explained  by  the  packing  of 
the  auditory  canal.  It  is  evident  that  other  factors  enter  into 
the  deafness.  After  the  removal  of  the  wax,  the  observer  had  a 
decreased  upper  limit  which  was  undoubtedly  caused  by  inner 
ear  trouble.  This  point  will  be  touched  upon  in  a  later  paragraph. 

Chart  6  is  the  result  of  a  test  in  the  case  of  a  slight  external 
otitis  in  the  left  ear,  a  simple  infection  of  the  lining  of  the  meatus 
and  perhaps  of  the  outer  wall  of  the  tympanic  membrane.  The 
hearing  for  voice  was  normal.  The  loss  in  perception  for  the 
higher  tones  in  this  ear  was  too  slight  to  be  discovered  by  the 
tuning  fork  test. 

In  the  case  of  deafness  artificially  created,  no  inflammation 
was  present.  The  powder  remained  in  the  ear  but  a  short  time. 
With  the  impacted  ear  there  was  a  slight  possibility  that  there 
might  be  inflammation  but  the  tests  were  made  immediately  after 
it  was  noticed.  The  wax  had  undoubtedly  been  in  the  ear  for 
some  time  but  was  only  noticed  when  the  patient  went  swimming 
and  got  some  water  in  the  affected  ear  which  caused  the  canal 
to  become  tightly  closed.  In  the  case  of  the  cotton  pellet  and  in 
the  external  otitis,  there  was  undoubted  inflammation  to  be  con¬ 
sidered.  The  results  are  different  in  every  case,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  figures. 

Middle  ear  deafness.  The  many  varied  forms  of  middle  ear 
deafness  and  the  frequency  of  such  lesions  of  that  region  makes 
this  subject  of  most  important  clinical  significance.  If  we  may 
believe  Emerson  ( 1 6) ,  no  pure  middle  ear  lesion  exists,  but  in 
the  course  of  this  study  at  least  two  cases  were  found  which,  ac¬ 
cording  to  Dr.  Dean,  presented  the  features  of  pure  middle  ear 
lesions. 

Fig.  7  is  for  a  case  of  acute  tubal  catarrh.  After  this  record 
was  made,  the  eustachian  tubes  were  inflated  and  the  results  of  a 
new  test  are  shown  in  Fig.  8.  After  the  second  test  was  made, 
the  patient,  a  young  man  of  19  years  of  age,  remained  under  ob¬ 
servation  for  ten  days.  At  the  end  of  this  period,  a  third  and 
fourth  test  showed  a  condition  similar  to  the  one  of  Fig.  8. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


73 


Fig.  9  shows  the  effect  on  hearing  of  an  adenoma  in  the  fossa 
of  Rosenmiiller  in  the  right  side  causing  a  mechanical  blocking 
of  the  eustachian  tube. 

With  the  other  common  forms  of  middle  ear  deafness  such  as 


7070*. 


74 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


hyperplastic  otitis  media,  chronic  suppurative  otitis  media,  recur¬ 
rent  or  acute  otorrhoea,  etc.,  the  presence  of  such  diagnostic 
points  as  the  loss  of  hearing  for  tones  above  the  range  of  the 
audiometer,  the  loss  of  perception  by  bone  conduction  and  the 
decrease  in  sensitivity  for  a  limited  range  of  tones,  others  re¬ 
maining  normal,  makes  it  necessary  to  consider  these  evidences 
of  inner  ear  deafness  in  making  a  diagnosis. 

Combined  middle  and  inner  ear  deafness.  A.  Chronic  otor¬ 
rhoea  with  cochlear  involvement.  Fig.  io  is  that  of  a  girl  seven 
years  of  age.  The  clinical  examination  showed  the  presence  of  a 
profuse  foul  discharge  in  the  right  ear  which,  according  to  the 
history  of  the  case,  had  followed  an  attack  of  scarlet  fever  three 
years  before.  The  audiometer  test  distinctly  added  information 
to  the  clinical  test  in  this  case.  The  island  shown  at  5000  d.v. 
was  between  the  range  of  the  c5  fork  and  that  of  the  monochord 
so  that  it  was  not  discovered  in  the  clinical  test. 

B.  Chronic  otorrhoea  with  syphilis.  Fig.  1 1  is  that  of  a 
woman  nineteen  years  of  age.  Both  ears  had  been  discharging 
for  five  or  six  years  but  hearing  was  not  greatly  diminished. 
About  three  weeks  before  the  tests  were  made,  she  suffered  with 
dull  headaches,  the  discharge  became  very  profuse  and  she  be¬ 
came  almost  entirely  deaf.  At  the  time  of  the  examination  she 
could  hear  only  the  loud  voice  at  one  foot. 

C.  Acute  suppurative  otitis  media.  Two  weeks  before  the 
test  of  Fig.  12  was  taken,  the  patient,  a  young  man  of  eighteen 
years  of  age,  had  a  bilateral  infection  of  both  middle  ears  as  a 
result  of  getting  water  into  the  middle  ears  while  swimming. 
At  the  time  of  the  clinical  examination  the  tympanic  membrance 
were  inflamed  and  bulging.  Paracentesis  was  performed  but  this 
did  not  prove  sufficient  for  the  left  ear.  A  mastoidectomy  was 
necessary  on  this  side.  The  right  ear  appeared  to  be  clearing  up 
without  complications.  The  chart  for  the  right  ear  shows  the 
presence  of  an  island  for  tones  above  6300  d.v.,  a  possible  evi¬ 
dence  of  inner  ear  involvement  in  the  ear  not  operated. 

D.  Chronic  hyperplastic  otitis  media.  Fig.  13  is  that  of  a 
woman  sixty-eight  years  of  age.  In  the  previous  clinical  ex¬ 
amination  she  was  reported  as  being  able  to  hear  the  whispered 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


75 


and  spoken  voice  normally.  In  the  first  audiometer  examination, 
the  gap  shown  in  the  curve  for  the  left  ear  was  passed  over  be¬ 
cause  of  its  limited  extent  and  the  hurry  with  which  the  test  was 


76 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


conducted.  In  the  second  test,  the  opposite  ear  was  excluded  by 
means  of  the  noise  apparatus  and  when  the  test  was  given  prop¬ 
erly  the  gap  was  found.  In  the  fork  tests  the  c4  fork  was  re¬ 
ported  audible  but  when  retested,  this  fork  was  heard  only  when 
struck  with  a  steel  hammer  and  then  there  appeared  to  be  some 
doubt  as  to  whether  it  was  the  sound  of  the  fork  or  the  impact 
of  the  hammer  which  was  heard.  This  test  illustrates  the  ne¬ 
cessity  of  excluding  the  opposite  ear  in  tests  of  this  nature,  espe¬ 
cially  when  loud  tones  are  used  or  when  there  is  a  great  differ¬ 
ence  in  the  sensitivity  of  the  two  ears. 

In  hyperplastic  otitis  media,  the  condition  of  the  membrane 
and  the  eustachian  tubes  is  an  important  factor  in  making  the 
diagnosis.  With  the  progress  of  the  disease,  the  membrane  and 
ossicles  seem  to  lose  their  function  almost  entirely.  The  audio¬ 
meter  curve  shows  a  general  lowering  throughout  the  range  and 
the  clinical  tests  show  great  loss  of  hearing  for  the  voice.  Fig. 
14  is  illustrative.  The  patient,  a  man  thirty-three  years  of  age, 
gives  a  history  of  deafness  increasing  for  twelve  years.  At  the 
time  of  this  examination  he  could  hear  a  loud  voire  close  to  his 
ears  only.  The  drum  membranes  were  flaccid  and  covered  with 
trophic  areas  and  the  tubal  orifices  were  scarred  from  previous 
treatments. 

Inner  ear  deafness.  A.  Acoustic  neuritis.  In  cases  of  acous¬ 
tic  neuritis  we  have  loss  of  perception  for  the  higher  tones  and 
decrease  in  perception  by  bone  condition.  Often  the  perception 
for  the  human  voice  is  apparently  undisturbed.  Where  it  is 
possible,  the  focus  of  infection  or  inflammation  has  been  sought 
and  is  here  recorded. 

Fig.  15  was  taken  on  January  19,  1921.  In  this  case,  the 
diagnosis  given  by  one  of  the  colleagues  of  Dr.  Dean  was  con¬ 
sidered  by  him  to  be  questionable.  The  history  of  the  case  seemed 
to  make  it  possible  that  the  trouble  might  be  other  than  a  nerve 
infection.  However,  since  the  patient  had  badly  diseased  tonsils 
and  rather  frequent  attacks  of  tonsilitis,  he  was  advised  to  have 
the  tonsils  removed  and  followed  the  advice  at  once.  On  June 
23  another  test  was  given  with  the  results  shown  in  Fig.  16. 
There  is  apparently  a  return  of  perception  for  the  tones  in  the 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


77 


upper  portion  of  the  range.  The  patient  notices  that  his  hearing 
in  ordinary  life  is  much  improved.  The  diagnosis  of  acoustic 
neuritis  with  the  focus  of  infection  in  the  badly  diseased  tonsils 
is  apparently  justified  by  the  recovery  of  his  hearing  after  the 
removal  of  the  tonsils. 

Fig.  17  is  that  of  one  of  the  clinical  assistants.  Previous  to  this 
test,  this  surgeon  had  not  been  aware  of  any  deafness  and  was, 
in  fact,  conducting  the  routine  hearing  tests  of  the  clinic.  There 
is  a  decided  loss  in  hearing  for  the  upper  portion  of  the  scale 
covered  by  the  audiometer.  The  perception  for  the  c5  fork  is 
very  much  decreased.  However,  the  upper  limit  as  determined 
by  the  Galton  whistle,  the  monochord  and  the  Koenig  cylinders 
is  practically  normal.  His  perception  by  bone  conduction  is 
lessened.  In  this  case,  since  there  is  no  indication  of  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  a  focus  of  infection,  the  neuritis  has  been  ascribed  to  the 
excessive  use  of  tobacco  which  is  held  to  be  the  cause  of  similar 
toxic  conditions. 

Fig.  18  is  that  of  a  syphilitic  patient,  male,  forty-seven  years 
of  age.  In  the  early  stages  of  syphilitic  deafness  there  has  often 
been  shown  to  be  a  definite  improvement  as  a  result  of  systemic 
treatment.  In  the  case  here  shown,  one  of  cerebro-spinal  syphilis, 
the  usual  anti-syphilitic  treatment  resulted  in  no  measurable  im¬ 
provement  in  audition.  As  in  so  many  cases  where  the  curve 
has  this  general  contour,  this  patient  thought  that  his  hearing  was 
good  except  when  his  head  “felt  stopped  up”  with  a  bad  cold. 

B.  Neuro-labyrinthitis.  Fig.  19  is  that  of  a  man,  twenty-one 
years  of  age  who  was  in  the  eye  service  of  the  clinic.  The  rou¬ 
tine  test  revealed  a  loss  of  hearing  for  the  c5  fork.  The  audio¬ 
meter  test  gave  the  islands  and  gaps  indicative  of  inner  ear  deaf¬ 
ness.  In  the  presence  of  no  focus  of  infection  and  because  of 
the  general  appearance  of  the  patient,  he  was  given  a  tuberculin 
test.  This  was  followed  by  the  marked  local  reactions  typical  of 
tubercular  patients.  With  tuberculin  treatment  extending  over 
three  weeks,  there  was  a  marked  improvement  in  the  hearing. 
The  treatment  and  reaction  verified  the  diagnosis  of  toxic  laby¬ 
rinthitis. 

Fig.  20  is  from  the  examination  of  a  yong  man  of  seventeen. 


73 


CORDIA  C.  BUNCH 


ooooo  o  o  oopoo  o 

r>  <o  to  F-  «oo  loppoo  t> 

r«  r>  to  to  »-<  ©  S  v>  r>  o 

r*  a  ^  *Q  <t>  N 

Pltan 


The  history  given  was  almost  negative.  Deafness  had  extended 
almost  from  the  time  his  parents  could  talk  to  him.  The  Wasser- 
man  test  was  negative  and  there  was  no  apparent  focus  of  in¬ 
fection  to  cause  the  deafness  but  in  his  examination  his  parents 


MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


79 


reported  that  he  had  had  a  severe  case  of  mumps  when  he  was 
three  years  old,  and  in  the  absence  of  other  evidence  or  etiologi¬ 
cal  factors,  it  was  decided  that  the  deafness  resulted  from  the 
mumps. 

The  eitological  factor  in  Fig.  21  is  pellagra.  The  record  is 
from  a  man  sixty-five  years  of  age.  The  records  for  the  voice 
tests  in  this  case  were  right,  whisper  6  in.  spoken  2  ft.,  left, 
whisper  6  in.  spoken  6  ft.  This  and  the  following  curve  shows  a 
rather  peculiar  effect  of  a  nutritional  disease. 

In  Fig.  22  leukemia  is  the  etiological  factor.  The  patient  is 
a  man  sixty  years  of  age. 

C.  Otosclerosis.  The  curve  shown  in  Fig.  23  is  that  of  a  lady 
twenty-seven  years  of  age.  In  the  test  made  three  years  before 
the  record  shown  here  the  case  was  diagnosed  as  otosclerosis,  the 
type  being  that  in  which  the  head  of  the  stapes  becomes  fixed. 
The  patient  gives  a  history  of  deafness  on  the  maternal  side  of 
the  three  preceding  generations.  At  the  time  of  the  first  test, 
the  hearing  was  almost  normal,  the  only  disturbing  factor  being 
distressing  tinnitis.  With  the  Gelle  test,  the  patient  gave  the 
positive  response. 

A  second  type  of  otosclerosis  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  24,  that  of 
a  woman  fifty-two  years  of  age.  The  negative  Rinne,  increased 
bone  conduction,  paracousis  of  Willisii  and  history  of  gradually 
increasing  deafness  preceded  by  distressing  tinnitis  is  rather  typi¬ 
cal  of  this  type  of  deafness.  At  the  time  of  the  test,  voice  was 
heard  at  one  foot. 


Conclusion 

The  curves  given  above  are  selected  because  they  are  typical. 
The  description  accompanying  each  chart  is  intended  only  to  add 
to  the  information  given  by  the  curve  in  order  that  the  points  of 
diagnosis  may  be  more  evident  to  those  skilled  in  drawing  such 
conclusions.  Throughout  the  study,  however,  several  outstand¬ 
ing  features  of  the  work  have  been  very  evident. 

1.  Clinical  evidence  for  diagnosis  which  has  been  passed  over 
in  a  thorough  clinical  test  of  two  hours  duration  has  been  brought 
to  lisrht  in  a  test  of  fifteen  minutes  with  the  audiometer. 


8o 


CORDIA  C.  BUNCH 


2.  Incipient  lesions  impossible  of  determination  with  the  tun¬ 
ing  fork  tests  have  been  determined  with  the  audiometer  because 
complete  quantitative  determinations  are  possible. 

3.  Because  of  the  possibility  of  exact  acuity  determinations, 
the  audiometer  has  been  materially  helpful  in  differentiating  be¬ 
tween  diseases  of  the  inner  and  the  middle  ear. 

4.  Tone  gaps  and  islands  are  much  more  common  in  clinical 
practice  than  is  ordinarily  thought  to  be  the  case.  In  this  study, 
tone  gaps  and  islands,  more  or  less  inceptive,  have  been  found 
in  43  per  cent  of  the  cases  tested.3 

5.  The  audiometer  in  the  hands  of  the  clinical  assistants  is 
much  more  reliable  in  its  results  than  a  set  of  forks.  In  tests 
where  there  has  been  an  apparent  discrepancy  between  the  re¬ 
sults  found  in  the  fork  tests  and  those  of  the  audiometer,  check¬ 
ing  has  always  proven  the  results  of  the  fork  tests  to  be  in  error. 
The  results  of  the  audiometer  test  are  more  comprehensive,  less 
time  consuming  and  more  accurate  than  a  routine  test  with  octave 
forks. 

3  These  cases  are  not,  however,  entirely  unselected.  Often  it  was  inad¬ 
visable  to  test  a  case  when  it  was  presented  at  the  clinic.  Children  too 
young  to  respond  properly  to  the  instructions  were  not  tested.  Those  ill 
enough  to  demand  immediate  care  were  not  tested.  On  the  other  hand,  Dr. 
Dean  kindly  submitted  many  of  his  most  interesting  private  cases  for  tests. 


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MEASUREMENT  OF  ACUITY  OF  HEARING 


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Tests,  Simpler  Processes,  p.  212.) 

32.  Lichte,  H.  Ann.  d.  Physik,  42,  p.  843. 

33.  Lucae,  A.  Ann.  of  Otol.,  Rhin.  and  Laryng.,  13,  1906, 

p-  376- 

34.  Marage.  (See  Miller,  Science  of  Musical  Sounds, 
p.  244.) 

35.  Miller,  D.  C.  Science  of  Musical  Sounds,  1916,  p.  226. 

36.  Ostmann.  Arch,  of  Otol.,  34,  1905,  p.  267. 

37.  Pfaundler  and  Schlossmann,  Diseases  of  Children , 
Trans,  by  Shaw  and  LeFetra,  6,  p.  96. 

38.  Politzer,  A.  Diseases  of  the  Ear,  1894,  p.  128. 

39.  Prout,  J.  S.  Boston,  Med.  and  Surg.  J.,  Feb.  29,  1872. 

40.  Quix.  (See  Arch,  of  Otol.,  34,  1905,  p.  330.) 

41.  Rayleigh,  Lord.  Phil.  Mag.  38,  1894,  p.  285. 

42.  Rayleigh,  Lord.  Phil.  Mag.  13,  1882,  p.  340. 

43.  Rayleigh,  Lord.  Phil.  Mag.  14,  1907,  p.  596. 

44.  Rayleigh,  Lord.  Phil.  Mag.  38,  1894,  p.  365. 

45.  Robin.  Bull,  et  Mem.  Soc.  d’ Anthropol.,  3,  1902,  p.  209. 

46.  Sanford.  (See  Vaschide,  Audiometrie,  p.  241.) 

47.  Schulze,  F.  A.  Ann.  d.  Phys.,  24,  1907,  p.  285. 

48.  Scheibler,  H.  (See  Loudon,  Sci.  N.  S.,  1901,  p.  987.) 

49.  Schwendt.  Arch,  of  Otol.  28,  1899,  p.  468. 

50.  Scripture  and  Smith.  Stud,  from  Yale  Psychol.  Lab.  2. 

51.  Seashore,  C.  E.  Univ.  of  Iowa  Stud,  in  Psychol,  2,  p.  55. 


82 


CORD  I A  C.  BUNCH 


52.  Shaw,  P.  E.  Proc.  of  the  Roy .  Soc .,  Ser.  A,  76,  1905, 
p.  360. 

53.  Stefanini,  A.  N.  Cimento ,  10,  1905,  pp.  65-78. 

54.  Stefanini,  A.  N.  Cimento,  24,  p.  215. 

55.  Stefanini,  A.  (See  Sci.  Ahs.  A.,  1915,  No.  1080.) 

56.  Stern,  L.  W.  Arch,  of  Otol.  30,  1901,  p.  375. 

57.  Struycken.  (See  Goldstein,  M.  A.  Laryngoscope,  29, 
1913,  p.  216.) 

58.  Urbantschitch.  (See  Pfaundler  and  Schlossman,  6, 
p.  76.) 

59.  Urbantschitch.  (See  Dench,  Diseases  of  the  Ear , 
P-  *45-) 

60.  Urban.  (See  Seashore,  C.  E.,  Psych.  Bull.  11,  1914, 
p.  20.) 

61.  Toulouse,  Vaschiede  and  Pierron.  (See  Whipple, 
Manual  of  Ment.  and  Phys.  Tests.,  Simpler  Proc.,  p.  203.) 

62.  Toepler  and  Boltzmann.  Pogg.  Ann.  140,  1870,  p.  321. 
63-  Vance,  Thomas.  Univ.  of  Iowa.  Stud,  in  Psychol.  6, 

p.  104. 

64.  von  Kittlitz.  (See  Block,  Arch,  of  Otol.,  34,  1905, 
P-  523* 

65.  Vreeland,  Oscillator.  Sci.  Ahs.  B.,  1916,  N.,  948. 

66.  Wanner.  Arch,  of  Otol.  36,  190 7,  p.  100. 

67.  Wead.  Arch,  of  Otol.  19,  1890,  p.  327. 

68.  Wead.  Arch,  of  Psychol.,  2,  p.  61. 

69.  Webster,  A.  G.  Proc.  of  Nadi.  Acad,  of  Sci.,  5,  1919. 

P-  *73 

70.  Wells,  W.  A.  Laryngoscope,  23,  1913,  p.  989. 

71.  Wein,  M.  Physikal.  Zeitschr.,  71,  1902,  p.  69. 

72.  Wien,  M.  Arch,  of  Psychol.  2,  p.  61. 

73.  Wilson,  J.  G.  J.  Am.  Med.  Assn.,  1918,  p.  628. 

74.  Wolf.  Arch,  of  Otol.,  19,  1890,  p.  298. 

75.  Wolfe.  (See  Rayleigh,  Theory  of  Sound,  2,  p.  433.) 

76.  Wundt.  Arch,  d’ Psychol.  5,  p.  108. 

77.  Zuehl,  B.  F.  Univ.  of  Iowa  Stud,  in  Psychol.  8. 

78.  Zwaardemaker,  H.  Ann.  of  Otol.,  Rhin.  and  Laryng.,  16, 

I9°7,  P-  59- 

79.  Zwaardemaker  and  Quix.  Arch,  of  Psychol.  2,  p.  61. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  AUDITORY  ACUITY  WITH 
THE  IOWA  PITCH  RANGE  AUDIOMETER 

by 

By  Benjamin  Franklin  Zuehl,  Ph.D. 

Description  of  apparatus;  procedure  and  technique  for  testing; 
norms  of  auditory  acuity;  conclusions;  bibliography. 

The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  establish  norms  of  acuity  in 
hearing  for  individuals  who  are  generally  considered  normal  in 
hearing  ability,  and  to  discover  the  general  tendencies  in  the 
distribution  of  acuity  as  well  as  types  of  deviation  from  the 
norm.  Such  norms  are  valuable  particularly  for  the  purpose  of 
comparison  in  diagnosing  pathological  cases  and  for  determining 
fitness  for  certain  vocational  and  professional  activities  (18). 

This  study  is  a  sequel  to  several  years’  work  in  the  field  of 
audition  in  the  laboratories  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa 
which  has  resulted  in  the  construction  of  the  Iowa  Pitch  Range 
Audiometer;  this  apparatus  is  a  result  of  the  efforts  and  co¬ 
operation  of  several  departments,  principally  Otology,  Physics 
and  Electrical  Engineering  with  that  of  Psychology  (9,  p.  3). 

The  pioneer  work,  both  in  developing  the  instrument  and  de¬ 
vising  a  method  of  procedure,  was  done  by  Dr.  C.  C.  Bunch,  act¬ 
ing  as  research  assistant  in  the  psycho-physics  of  otology.  In 
the  University  Hospital  this  method  was  used  in  the  otological 
clinic  and  has  demonstrated  its  superiority  to  other  diagnostic 
devices  so  convincingly  that  examination  with  the  audiometer 
has  been  substituted  for  tuning  fork  tests  (4). 

Description  of  Apparatus 

The  apparatus  used  in  this  investigation  is  the  fifth  model 
of  the  Iowa  Pitch  Range  Audiometer  and  represents  a  further 
development  of  the  instrument  used  by  Dr.  C.  C.  Bunch  (3,  pp. 
66//.),  the  principal  differences  being  special  frictionless  bear- 


84 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  ZUEHL 


mgs  for  the  generator  shaft,  a  more  practical  gradation  of  in¬ 
tensity  steps,  and  the  installation  of  the  control  board  and 
listeners’  equipment  in  the  silence  room.  The  motor  and  gen¬ 
erators  were  inclosed  in  a  heavy  felt-lined  wooden  box  which 
was  suspended  by  ropes  from  an  overhead  support  in  an  ad¬ 
jacent  room. 

The  details  of  the  present  model  are  shown  in  Fig.  i,  and  con¬ 
sist  essentially  in  the  following:  two  sound-generators  as  shown 
in  Fig.  i,  A  and  C;  a  D.  C.  motor  Fig.  i,  B;  an  electric  tach¬ 
ometer  Fig.  i,  D.  These  are  mounted  on  a  cast-iron  base  Fig. 


Fig.  i.  Tone  generators,  motor  and  tachometer  mounted  on  iron  base. 
A  =  large  generator;  C  =  small  generator;  B  =  motor;  D  =  tacho¬ 
meter  ;  F  =  cast  iron  base ;  EE  —  insulated  shaft  couplings.  Details  of 
large  generator  shown  in  section  in  the  upper  figure;  PP  =  stationary 
plates ;  W  =  rotating  disc ;  AAAA  =  space  between  cogs. 

i,  F.  Binding  posts  are  fastened  on  the  base  for  the  necessary 
connections;  twelve  dry-cell  batteries  were  used  to  magetize  the 
generator  coils.  The  balance  of  the  apparatus  was  installed  in 
the  observation  room  and  consists  of  the  following  parts:  a 
control  board  shown  in  Fig.  2,  a  signal  key  and  telephone  re¬ 
ceiver  (not  shown).  The  control  board  is  made  of  asbestos 
board,1  reenforced  with  an  angle-iron  frame,  set  on  edge  at  an 
angle  convenient  for  operation  and  observation  by  the  experi- 

1  The  asbestos  control  board  absorbs  moisture  from  the  atmosphere  in 
damp  weather  causing  a  short  circuiting.  It  should  therefore  be  replaced 
by  a  rubber  or  stone  slab. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  AUDITORY  ACUITY 


85 


menter,  it  is  equipped  with  motor  switch,  signal  light  switch, 
rheostat  and  control  lever,  resistance  control,  double  generator 
switch,  telephone  cut-out  and  a  tachometer  scale,  all  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  The  tachometer  is  calibrated  so  that  the  pitch  of  the 


Fig.  2.  Control  board,  i,  2  and  3  =  connections  with  motor;  4,  5  =  signal 
key  connections;  6,  7  =  wires  to  telephone  receiver;  8,  9  and  10  =  bat¬ 
tery  connections;  11,  12  =  to  high  generator;  13,  14  =  to  low  generator; 
15,  16  =  to  tachometer. 

tone  can  be  read  directly,  the  readings  being  in  thousands  per 
second  when  using  the  large  generator,  and  in  hundreds  per 
second  when  using  the  small  generator,  since  the  number  of 
radial  cogs  on  the  small  generator  is  one-tenth  as  many  as  those 
on  the  large  generator. 

The  double  generator  switch  makes  it  possible  to  connect 
either  the  large  or  small  generator  with  the  batteries,  or  to  dis¬ 
connect  them  entirely;  the  latter  should  be  done  when  the  ap¬ 
paratus  is  not  in  use,  in  order  to  save  the  batteries. 

The  telephone  cut-out,  Fig.  2,  T.  L.  and  T.  H.  not  only  serves 
the  purpose  of  connecting  the  telephone  with  the  desired  gener¬ 
ator,  but  also  enables  the  experimenter  to  interrupt  the  circuit  for 
the  purpose  of  control  trials. 

The  device  for  controlling  the  resistance,  (and  hence  the  in¬ 
tensity  of  the  tone  as  heard  in  the  telephone)  consists  of  a  series 
of  twenty-one  non-inductive  resistances  installed  in  series  with 
the  generators,  (Fig.  2).  The  contact  which  represents  minimal 


86 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  ZUEHL 


intensity,  (indicated  by  “Mi.”  Fig.  2)  is  not  absolute,  zero  re¬ 
sistance,  since  a  number  of  observers  can  hear  the  tone  at  the 
most  favorable  pitches. 


TABLE  I.  Intensity  scale  in  tcnns  of  resistance 


Designation 
of  intensity 
steps 

Resistances  (in  ohms) 

Per  cent 
of 

increase 

1 

Increments 

l 

Total 

Minimal 

.0 

Minimum 

1. 

.000025 

.000025-I- 

? 

2. 

.0000375 

.0000627 

250 

3- 

.000094 

.0001567 

250 

4- 

.000235 

.0003911 

250 

5- 

.000586 

.000977 

250 

6. 

.001465 

.00244 

250 

7. 

.00366 

.0061 

250 

8. 

.00915 

.0152 

250 

9- 

.0228 

.038 

250 

10. 

•057 

.097 

250 

11. 

.1425 

■2375 

250 

12. 

.35625 

•59375 

250 

13- 

.890625 

1.4843 

250 

14. 

2.226 

371078 

250 

15- 

5.565 

9-275 

250 

16. 

139125 

23.1S7 

250 

17. 

3478 

57.9675 

250 

18. 

86.95 

144.918 

250 

19. 

217.37 

362.288 

250 

20. 

543-432 

905.72 

250 

Maximal 

1358.58 

2264.3 

250 

The  scale  of  resistances  is  shown  in  Table  I.  Each  of  the 
contacts  in  the  intensity  control  establishes  its  circuit  through  the 
telephone  terminals  as  the  switch  is  shifted  from  one  to  the  other. 
The  potential  drop  across  the  terminals  of  the  telephone  can 
therefore  be  varied  at  will  by  the  experimenter  and  the  loudness 
of  the  tone  can  be  registered  in  terms  of  the  resistances. 

The  two  tone  generators  are  constructed  on  the  same  principle : 
a  metal  disc  with  radial  cogs  or  teeth,  is  rotated  before  a  similarly 
constructed  stationary  disc.  The  large  generator  is  equipped 
with  150  cogs  and  the  small  one  with  15.  A  primary  and  sec¬ 
ondary  coil  is  constructed  around  each  set  of  discs,  so  that  the 
cogs  pass  each  other  in  the  magnetic  fields  of  the  coils.  Fig.  1 
shows  the  coils  for  the  large  generator  in  cross  section.  The 
large  generator  has  radial  cogs  on  two  faces  of  the  rotating 


MEASUREMENT  OF  AUDITORY  ACUITY 


87 


disc,  and  hence  has  two  stationary  plates,  one  on  either  side ; 
the  small  generator  has  radial  cogs  on  only  one  face,  and  hence 
one  stationary  plate.  In  both  cases  the  distance  between  the 
plates  is  .007  inch  and  is  kept  uniform;  a  magnetic  arc  is  formed 
across  this  air  gap  when  the  crests  of  the  cogs  on  one  wheel  pass 
those  of  the  other.  This  magnetic  impulse  actuates  the  telephone 
diaphragm  at  a  rate  determined  by  the  number  of  cogs  passing 
each  other  per  second,  and  the  latter  is  in  turn  controlled  by  the 
speed  of  the  motor;  hence  the  pitch  of  the  tone  varies  with  the 
speed  of  the  motor.  The  small  generator  is  necessary  in  order 
to  get  accurate  readings  for  the  tones  ranging  approximately 
from  30  dv.  to  700. 

In  setting  up  the  apparatus  it  is  necessary  to  have  twelve 
connecting  wires  leading  from  the  motor,  generators  and  tach¬ 
ometer  to  the  control  board.  The  three  wires  leading  from 
the  motor  to  the  rheostat,  and  the  two,  from  the  tachometer  to 
the  scale  on  the  control  board  may  be  bunched  together  in  one 
cable;  the  other  wires  should  be  kept  separate  from  the  five  in 
the  first  group  to  prevent  induction.  The  wires  from  the  control 
board  to  the  telephone  should  also  be  kept  separated  from  those 
leading  to  the  signal  key,  since  the  latter  carries  a  D.  C.  which 
may  also  cause  induction  if  brought  near  the  telephone  wires. 

Accessory  tones  from  the  motor  and  bearings  are  heard  along 
with  the  stimulus  tone  proper  when  running  at  very  high 
speed;  these  become  disturbing  at  approximately  7,000  dv.  and 
more  and  more  disturbing  with  higher  frequencies.2 

2  Several  methods  were  used  to  eliminate  this  disturbance,  or  to  modify  it 
so  that  reliable  records  could  be  obtained  for  frequencies  above  the  7,000 
d.v.  pitch.  A  high  resistance  and  condenser  was  installed  in  series  with  the 
generators  and  the  telephone  in  order  to  find  an  adjustment  which  would 
dampen  the  accessory  tones  without  affecting  the  stimulus  tone;  the  result 
was  not  satisfactory,  since  both  the  stimulus  and  accessory  tones  were 
damped  alike. 

The  second  effort  was  directed  to  the  modification  of  the  diaphragm ;  fol¬ 
lowing  nodal  series  of  sand  figures  artificial  nodes  were  attempted,  by  the 
use  of  beeswax,  which  would  have  the  effect  of  producing  anti-nodes  for  the 
accessory  tones.  The  results  of  this  method  were  not  conclusive,  but  indi¬ 
cated  that  not  much  advantage  was  derived  for  the  high  frequencies.  The 
damping  effect  was  noticeable  also  for  low  and  middle  range  stimulus  tones. 


88 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  ZUEHL 


Having  failed  in  the  attempt  to  eliminate  these  accessory 
noises  for  high  tones,  we  modified  the  procedure  in  such  a  way 
that  the  observer  can  hear  the  accessory  tones  alone  at  first. 
This  is  accomplished  by  increasing  the  speed  of  the  motor  to 
a  frequency  where  the  stimulus  tone  is  inaudible.  The  motor 
is  then  slowed  down  until  the  stimulus  tone  becomes  clearly 
audible  and  can  be  distinguished  from  the  much  lower  accessory 
tone. 


Procedure  and  technique  for  testing 

The  accuracy  of  the  hearing  tests  depends  largely  upon  the 
preliminary  attunement  of  the  observer;  the  readiness  with  which 
the  situation  is  grasped  and  the  adaptability  of  the  individual  to 
the  conditions  of  the  test  must  furnish  the  first  important  cue 
for  the  experimenter.  In  fact,  the  behavior  of  the  observer 
must  be  studied  carefully  and  rapidly  during  the  preliminaries  so 
that  the  method  of  procedure  may  be  modified  in  a  way  favor¬ 
able  to  the  individuality  of  the  observer. 

The  procedure  which  was  finally  adopted  may  be  summarized 
briefly  under  the  following  directions: 

Aim  to  determine  the  contour  of  the  area  of  hearing,  making 
a  record  on  a  norm  blank  like  Plates  I.  to  IV. 

Use  a  given  intensity  as  a  constant  and  vary  the  pitch  until 
the  limit  for  that  intensity  is  found.  Vary  the  pitch  at  a  rate 
most  favorable  for  precise  location  of  the  threshold. 

Proceed  from  “sound  heard”  to  “sound  not  heard,”  Tu, 
(threshold  under)  ;  but  verify  and  control  frequently  by  using 
the  reverse  order,  To,  (threshold  over),  without  recording. 
If  the  Tu  is  too  uncertain  above  1,200,  use  the  To  for  that 
region. 

Determine  the  contour  in  three  sections :  4,000  to  500  dv. ; 

750  to  30  dv. ;  and  14,500  to  4,000  dv. 

Begin  with  the  better  ear,  if  known,  or  with  the  right  ear,  and 
change  ears  for  each  of  the  three  above  sections. 

Verify  gaps  and  islands  or  minor  irregularities  in  contour 
in  fine  detail. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  AUDITORY  ACUITY 


89 


Avoid  fatigue  by  alert  action  on  the  part  of  both  experimenter 
and  observer,  and  if  many  repetitions  are  necessary,  allow  inter¬ 
vals  of  rest  for  that  particular  pitch.  Normally  a  thorough  test 
for  both  ears  should  be  made  in  25  minutes. 

When  it  is  found  that  one  ear  is  very  inferior  to  the  other, 
it  is  advisable  to  close  the  better  ear  with  the  finger,  or  use  a 
buzzer  so  that  the  sounds  will  not  be  heard  with  the  superior 
ear,  but  both  of  these  devices  must  be  used  with  extreme  caution. 

The  two  ears  may  be  charted  on  the  same  blank.  In  making 
the  chart,  it  is  convenient  for  the  experimenter  to  make  pencil 
check  marks  to  indicate  the  readings,  using  different  signs  for 
right  and  left  ear.  It  is  well  to  fill  in  the  curve  as  the  test  pro¬ 
ceeds.  The  final  chart  may  then  be  made  by  inking  the  records 
for  the  right  ear  in  black  and  for  the  left  in  red. 

Observers 

In  this  study  two-hundred  and  seventy-five  observers  were 
tested.3  The  observers  were  divided  into  three  groups  ac¬ 
cording  to  their  respective  ages.  Those  in  group  I.  were  pupils 
in  the  University  Elementary  and  Junior  High  School,  25  boys 
and  25  girls,  representing  ages  from  6  to  15  years.  Group  II. 
constitutes  the  largest  age  group  tested,  100  males  and  100  fe¬ 
males.  These  cases  may  be  regarded  as  a  random  selection 
among  second  year  students  in  the  University,  of  a  superior 
type  to  the  extent  that  college  students  in  general  are  superior 
to  an  unselected  group.  The  advanced  age  group  is  the  smallest 
in  point  of  numbers;  these  observers  were  members  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  faculty,  other  educators,  and  a  few  citizens  of  Iowa 
City  who  were  not  engaged  in  any  particular  profession.  An 
effort  was  made  to  have  chance  selection  operate  at  a  maximum 
for  all  observers  and  artificial  selection  was  avoided  as  far  as 
possible,  except  as  stated  in  the  above  note  on  pathological 
cases. 

3  A  number  of  charts  were  rejected  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  ob¬ 
servers  were  taking  treatments  from  a  physician  and  the  principal  motive 
for  having  the  test  made  was  to  ascertain  their  relative  hearing  ability 
under  these  circumstances. 


po 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  ZUEHL 


TABLE  II.  Age  Distribution 


Group  I  Group  II  Group  III 


r 

A 

( 

A 

r 

A 

Age 

Number 

Age 

Number 

Age 

Number 

Age  Number 

6 

1 

1 7 

1 

29 

1 

42 

I 

/ 

2 

18 

15 

30 

3 

45 

2 

8 

2 

19 

38 

32 

1 

47 

2 

9 

1 

20 

37 

33 

3 

48 

I 

10 

1 

21 

38 

34 

1 

49 

I 

11 

4 

22 

22 

35 

2 

50 

I 

12 

10 

23 

14 

36 

2 

52 

I 

13 

4 

24 

6 

37 

1 

54 

4 

14 

10 

25 

0 

4m! 

38 

1 

55 

2 

15 

15 

26 

3 

39 

1 

56 

1 

— 

27 

3 

41 

I 

60 

2 

28 

4 

— 

63 

2 

— 

65 

3 

70 

1 

73 

1 

Totals  . , 

50 

Totals  . 

Totals  . . 

...25 

Av.  Age 

13 

Av.  Age  . 

Av.  Age  _ 

...56 

Median  Age  . . 

13 

Median  Age  . . 

. .  21 

Median  Age 

•  •  57 

Norms  of  auditory  acuity 

The  norms  which  are  shown  by  Figures  3-6,  were  com¬ 
piled  according  to  the  following  method :  the  charts  were  first 
sorted  into  three  age  groups  (Table  II.)  and  the  tabulations  for 
right  and  left  ears  were  made  separately  for  the  purpose  of  com¬ 
parison;  the  frequency  and  intensity  values  were  compiled  on 
a  scattergram  and  frequency  readings  were  tabulated  for  each 
vertical  line  from  30  to  14,500  dv.  inclusive.  This  made  a  total 
of  thirty-eight  frequency  values  for  each  ear;  since  the  intensity 
variations  are  by  steps,  twenty-two  in  all,  these  were  taken  as 
the  proper  units  for  tabulation.  These  values  were  then  added 
for  each  frequency  and  intensity,  the  medians  computed,  also  a 
percentile  distribution  on  the  basis  of  the  highest  10%,  the 
lowest  10%,  the  middle  40%  and  the  20%  between  the  middle 
40%  and  the  highest  and  lowest  10%  respectively.  The  bound¬ 
aries  of  the  zones  representing  this  distribution  as  composites 
for  each  group,  (Figures  3,  4  and  5)  are  shown  as  follows: 
the  superior  10%  is  outlined  on  the  upper  side  with  dots,  except 
where  it  extends  beyond  the  area  of  the  chart  proper,  and  its 
lower  limit  is  a  line  of  dashes  and  small  circles;  the  latter  is  the 


MEASUREMENT  OF  AUDITORY  ACUITY 


91 


92 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  ZUEHL 


N  tO  ^  lO  iO  >  (0  O  O 

r-» 


c\j  t6  rj<  m  i£>  o  co  o  o  cj 

HHHHH  H  H  rt  W  S 


00S*t 

000*1 

00021 

00021 

OOOtt 

00001 

0006 
0008 
000 A 
0009 
0002 
000* 
.0002 

0003 
005 1 
0001 

02  L 

005 
002 
003 
00  T 
02 


Fig.  4.  Composite  curve,  Group  II.  Ages  17  to  41  years. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  AUDITORY  ACUITY 


93 


oogvt 

000*1 

00021 

00031 


0006 

0008 
000  L 
0009 

0005 

000* 

0002 

0003 

0091 

OOOI 

09A 

009 

002 

003 

00T 

02 


CO 


Fig.  5.  Composite  curve,  Group  III.  Ages  42  to  73  years.  Notation  same  as  in  Fig. 


94 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  ZUEHL 


009frt 

OOOfrT 

00021 

00021 

000  tl 

00001 

0006 
0008 
000 A 

000? 

0009 
000  fr 
0002 

0002 

0091 

0001 

09  L 

009 

002 

003 

001 

02 


Fig.  6.  Medians  or  groups  I,  II  and  III.  Dotted  line  =  median  for  Group  I ;  solid  line  =  median 
for  Group  II ;  dotted  line  with  small  circles  =  median  for  Group  III. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  AUDITORY  ACUITY 


95 


upper  limit  of  the  next  lower  20%  zone,  the  lower  limit  of 
which  is  indicated  by  a  solid  line;  the  middle  40%  is  between  the 
two  solid  lines;  the  next  lower  20%  is  just  below  the  lower  solid 
line  and  its  lower  limit  is  the  line  of  dashes  and  circles;  below 
the  latter  lies  the  lowest  10%,  bounded  by  the  dotted  line  at 
its  lower  limit. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  these  are  composite  curves  and  the  effi¬ 
ciency  of  an  observer  may  be  high  at  one  part  of  the  curve  and 
low  at  another.  If,  e.g.,  he  ranks  in  the  highest  10%  area  at 
one  frequency  it  is  no  warrant  that  he  is  also  superior  in  the 
balance  of  the  range.  For  comparison,  the  median  for  each 
of  the  three  age  groups  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

The  audiometer  tests  continuous  pitches,  but  not  continuous 
intensities,  and  the  steps  of  the  latter  were  chosen  arbitarily; 
however,  after  trying  both  larger  and  smaller  steps  a  250%  in¬ 
crement  was  accepted  as  suitable.  In  fact  a  moderately  accurate 
hearing  test  can  be  obtained  by  using  only  every  alternate  step, 
which  may  be  done  to  save  time  and  avoid  fatigue,  but  it  is  far 
more  reliable  to  use  every  step,  which  was  done  in  this  study. 

Conclusions 

1.  The  norms  for  the  respective  age  groups  may  be  used  as 
a  reliable  and  serviceable  basis  for  estimates  of  relative  auditory 
acuity  of  individuals. 

2.  The  results  show  that  diminution  in  ability  to  hear  high 
tones  (above  4,000  dv.)  occurs  with  advanced  age. 

3.  There  is  less  variation  in  acuity  for  hearing  tones  which 
correspond  to  the  range  of  the  human  voice  than  for  any  other 
frequencies. 

4.  The  greatest  variation  appears  in  the  range  of  very  high 
tones;  above  7,500  dv. 

5.  The  central  values  of  the  composite  hearing  curves  de¬ 
viate  uniformly  from  a  straight  line;  these  deviations  are  not 
tone  gaps  or  tone  islands,  but  are  due  to  the  apparatus  and  nor¬ 
mal  factors  in  the  auditory  mechanism. 

6.  Deviations  from  the  norms  are  due  primarily  to  individual 


96 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  ZUEHL 


differences  in  auditory  sensory  end  organs  including  the  acous¬ 
tical  parts,  and  secondarily  to  non-auricular  factors  operating 
in  the  observer,  e.g.,  motor,  intellectual,  emotional,  etc.  (14). 

7.  A  significant  inferiority  in  hearing  ability  may  be  present 
in  one  or  both  ears  without  the  individual  being  aware  of  it. 

8.  An  inferiority  of  two  intensity  steps  at  points  within  the 
frequencies  corresponding  to  the  speech  range  is  to  be  regarded 
as  significant. 

9.  Gaps  are  more  prevalent  in  the  range  of  high  frequencies, 
but  are  more  significant  in  daily  life  when  they  occur  in  the  low 
frequencies.  This  does  not  apply  to  diagnostic  significance. 

10.  The  general  efficiency  of  one  or  both  ears  may  be  stated 
in  terms  of  arbitrary  units  representing  directly  or  indirectly 
the  area  included  within  the  limits  of  the  curve  and  the  base  line 
representing  maximal  intensity. 

11.  Accurate  relative  measures  cannot  be  bunched  as  stated 
in  conclusion  No.  10,  but  can  only  be  stated  in  terms  of  two 
specific  values,  i.e.  pitch  and  intensity. 

12.  Gaps  and  tonal  islands  can  be  definitely  described  in 
terms  of  pitch  and  intensity. 

13.  Children  manifest  a  superior  ability  to  hear  high  tones, 
the  most  significant  superiority  begins  at  the  6,000  dv.  frequency. 

14.  Events  in  health  history  have  a  higher  correlation  with 
variations  in  hearing  ability  than  the  latter  have  with  chronol¬ 
ogical  age. 

15.  No  significant  difference  was  found  between  male  and 
female  observers  of  the  same  age  group  (Cf.  11). 

16.  No  significant  difference  was  shown  between  right  and 
left  ear  abilities,  except  in  the  advanced  age  group;  the  supe¬ 
riority  of  the  right  over  the  left  ear  in  the  third  group  is  sig¬ 
nificant  if  it  is  representative,  however  the  number  of  observers 
was  rather  limited  to  be  conclusive. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Birnbaum,  J.  W.,  “Ueber  eine  neue  Versuchanordnung 
zur  Pruefung  der  menschlichen  Hoerschaerfe  fuer  reine 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


97 


Toene  beliebiger  Hoehe,”  in  Ann.  der  Physik.  49,  1916, 
pp.  201-228. 

2.  Bourgeois,  “War  Otitis  and  Deafness,”  pp.  39-90. 

3.  Bunch,  C.  C.,  “Measurement  of  Acuity  of  Hearing 

throughout  the  Tonal  Range.”  (In  this  volume.) 

4.  Dean  and  Bunch,  “Results  obtained  from  one  year's  use 

of  the  Audiometer  in  the  Otological  Clinic,”  reprinted 
from  the  Transactions  of  the  Am.  Otological  Society, 
1920. 

5.  Fechner,  “Revision  der  Hauptpuncte  der  Psychophysik.” 

6.  Meyers,  C.  F.,  Text-book  of  Experimental  Psychol. 

PP-  30-3I- 

7.  Paton,  Steward,  “The  Biological  Problem  of  Adapta¬ 

tion,”  in  J.  Nervous  and  Mental  Diseases,  May  1920. 

8.  Pillsbury,  W.  B.,  “Methods  for  determining  the  Intensity 

of  Sound,”  Psych.  Monogr.  No.  53,  Dec.  1920. 

9.  Seashore,  C.  E.,  “The  Iowa  Pitch  Range  Audiometer,” 

The  Journal-Lancet,  Oct.  15,  1919. 

10.  Slaughter.  “Fluctuation  of  Attention,”  Am.  J.  of 

Psychol.,  XII.,  1901,  pp.  3I3-335- 

11.  Smith  and  Bartlett,  “On  Listening  to  Sounds  of  Weak 

Intensity,”  in  Br.  J.  of  Psychol.,  X.,  Pt.  I.  Nov.  1919* 
pp.  101-129. 

12.  Stern,  L.  W.  Physiologie  der  Veraenderungsauffassung, 

1898,  p.  211. 

13.  Stern  and  Whipple,  “Psychological  Methods  of  Testing 

Intelligence,”  p.  8. 

14.  Titchener,  E.  B.,  “Attention  and  Feeling,”  p.  219. 

15.  Titchener,  E.  B.,  “Psychology  of  Feeling  and  Attention, 

pp.  192-193. 

16.  Whipple,  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  Simpler 

Processes,  p.  212. 

17.  WlNKELMANN,  “Akustik,”  p.  368-4OI. 

18.  Wittmaack,  K.,  “Arch.  f.  Ohren,”  Bd.  cii.  Heft  1-2,  1918, 

reported  in  I.  of  Laryn.,  Rhin.  and  Otol.  1919*  34*  P- 
470.  (For  further  reference  see  3  above.) 


A  STROBOSCOPIC  DEVICE  FOR  MEASURING 

REVOLUTION  RATES 

By  Benjamin  Franklin  Zuehl,  Ph.D. 

An  inexpensive  device  for  measuring  rotation  rates  can  be 
made  by  mounting  two  paper  discs  on  rotating  axes.  If  the  rate 
of  one  is  known,  the  rate  of  the  other  can  be  determined  by 
finding  the  ratio  between  the  two  speeds  stroboscopically.  One 
disc  may  be  put  in  place  of  a  record  in  a  good  phonograph.  The 
rate  of  revolution  can  be  set  accurately  enough  for  general  pur¬ 
poses  by  counting  the  revolutions  during  several  minutes.  This 
then  furnishes  the  part  of  the  apparatus  necessary  for  pro¬ 
ducing  a  known  speed. 

In  case  of  a  practical  application,  the  other  disc  was  mounted 
on  the  top  of  the  vertical  axis  of  the  tone  generator  of  the  Iowa 
Pitch  Range  Audiometer  as  shown  by  Seashore.1 

For  convenience  in  description  the  disc  which  is  placed  on 
the  phonograph  will  be  designated  as  No.  I,  and  the  stroboscopic 
disc  whose  rate  is  to  be  determined  as  No.  2.  The  diameter  of 
No.  1  is  24  cm.  In  it  are  six  concentric  circles  of  holes  made 
with  a  paper  punch  4  mm.  in  diameter.  There  are  12  dots  in  the 
innermost  circle;  in  the  next  larger  circle  14,  and  so  on,  increas¬ 
ing  by  two’s;  the  outside  circle  then  has  22  dots.  The  radial 
spacing  is  14  mm.  for  each  successive  circle.  This  spacing  of 
the  circles  is  favorable  for  making  the  readings  without  con¬ 
fusion. 

Disc  No.  2  has  a  diameter  of  18  cm.  It  may  be  larger  or 
smaller  as  the  rotating  shaft  and  apparatus  will  permit.  Six 
concentric  circles  are  laid  off  on  this  disc,  the  smallest  with  a 
radius  of  78  mm.,  the  next  93  mm.,  and  so  on,  lengthening  the 
radii  of  the  respective  circles  by  15  mm.  The  number  of  aper¬ 
tures  in  these  circles,  beginning  with  the  innermost  and  toward 


1  “Psychology  of  Musical  Talent,”  pp.  90,  91,  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  Boston. 


A  STROBOSCOPIC  DEVICE  FOR  MEASURING 


99 


the  outer,  are,  I,  4,  8,  12,  and  24  respectively.  The  size  and 
shape  of  these  apertures  is  important.  From  the  inner  circle 
outward  the  apertures  measure  9  mm.  by  17  mm.  the  long  dimen¬ 
sion  being  at  right  angles  to  the  radius;  9  mm.  by  14  mm. ;  9  mm. 
by  9  mm. ;  9  mm.  by  3  mm. ;  and  9  mm.  by  1  mm.  respectively. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  accompanying  table,  the  inside  circles 
of  disc  No.  2  are  used  for  high  rates  of  speed  and  the  outside 
for  slower  speeds  and  the  differences  in  the  size  of  the  apertures 
give  an  exposure  suited  for  forming  the  retinal  image,  on  the 
principle  that  when  the  aperture  moves  slowly  a  narrow  slit  will 
give  a  similar  interval  for  retinal  reaction  as  a  wide  opening 
will  when  it  is  rotated  more  rapidly. 

It  is  advantageous  for  making  rapid  readings  to  have  different 
colors  as  a  background  for  the  various  circles  of  holes  on  the 
stroboscopic  disc  corresponding  to  the  respective  frequencies. 
Over  each  disc  a  scale  is  mounted  designating  the  circle  by  num¬ 
ber  or  letter. 

Disc  No.  1  must  be  set  below  and  to  one  side  of  disc  No.  2 
so  that  it  is  easy  to  look  down  through  disc  No.  2  upon  No.  1. 
The  two  discs  may  rotate  in  any  plane,  the  only  limitation  being 
that  they  shall  permit  a  free  line  of  vision  through  one  to  the 
other;  they  may  also  rotate  in  the  same  or  opposite  directions. 

When  both  discs  are  set  in  motion,  at  certain  speeds  a  row  of 
dots  on  No.  1  will  be  seen  standing  still  or  nearly  still;  this  takes 
place  when  one  set  of  apertures  of  disc  No.  2  synchronizes  with 
the  dots  in  that  row  on  disc  No.  1  or  come  in  multiples  of  it. 
To  get  the  rates,  divide  the  number  of  dots  in  the  circle  on  disc 
No.  1  by  the  number  of  apertures  in  the  circle  of  disc  No.  2 
through  which  the  observation  is  made;  the  quotient  will  give  the 
number  of  revolutions  made  by  disc  No.  2  while  disc  No.  1  makes 
one  revolution.  If  no  row  stands  still  but  two  adjacent  rows 
move  slowly  in  opposite  directions,  read  by  the  one  that  moves 
the  more  slowly.  The  correct  reading  lies  between  these  two 
rows  and  is  represented  by  the  inverse  of  the  ratio  of  the  two 
speeds.  Thus,  if  one  row  moves  at  the  rate  of  one  space  in  8 
seconds  and  the  other  in  the  opposite  direction  at  the  rate  of 


100 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  ZUEHL 


one  space  in  2  seconds,  then  the  reading  is  one  fourth  of  the 
number  of  units  from  the  former  line  and  three  fourths  from  the 
latter,  whatever  the  two  speeds  may  be. 

The  speed  of  disc  No.  1  should  be  fixed  at  that  frequency 
at  which  it  can  be  kept  most  uniform,  since  it  is  used  as  a  chro¬ 
nometer  and  all  the  readings  will  be  accurate  in  proportion  to 
the  degree  of  accuracy  with  which  this  disc  rotates. 


TABLE  I.  Scale  for  making  frequency  readings:  Number  of  revolutions 
per  second  of  Disc  No.  2  for  each  revolution  of  Disc  No.  1. 


12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 


Disc  No.  2. 
circles  of  disc  No.  1. 


1 

4 

8 

12 

24 

|  12 

3 

1.5 

I 

•5 

\24 

6 

y 

J 

2 

I 

S 14 

3-5 

175 

•5&T 

Us 

7 

3-5 

2.32+ 

1.16- j- 

1 16 

4 

2 

1-3-h 

.65+ 

{32 

8 

4 

2.6-j- 

I-30+ 

4-5 

2.25 

i-5 

75 

136 

9 

5-5 

3 

i-5 

S  20 

5 

2.5 

1.8 

•9 

\  40 

10 

5 

3-6 

1.8 

\  22 

5-5 

275 

1.83+ 

.96-j- 

\  44 

11 

5-5 

3-66- j- 

1-92 + 

at  the  top  give  number 

of  apertures 

in  the  respective  cii 

Double  speeds  in  italics. 


In  the  present  apparatus  one  revolution  of  disc  No.  2  denotes 
150  vibrations.  The  scale  shown  in  Table  I  is  therefore  capable 
of  giving  readings  of  vibrations  from  37.5  vd.  to  3300  vd.  by 
direct  reading,  or  75  vd.  to  6600  vd.  if  read  by  the  first  multiple. 

The  chief  advantages  of  this  speed  measuring  device  are  that 
(1)  it  measures  rates  of  revolution  accurately,  (2)  it  is  adapt¬ 
able  to  a  wide  range  of  frequency  rates  and  measures  every  speed 
within  its  range,  (3)  it  can  be  used  when  the  discs  rotate  in  other 
than  horizontal  planes,  and  (4)  it  is  inexpensive,  hence  con¬ 
venient  for  small  laboratories. 

Among  its  limitations  are  the  facts  that  ( 1 )  it  requires  some 
training  on  the  part  of  the  person  making  the  readings,  (2)  it 


A  STROBOSCOPIC  DEVICE  FOR  MEASURING 


IOI 


gives  a  ready  measurement  of  speeds  at  only  certain  points 
within  its  range,  the  speeds  between  these  must  be  calculated  by 
an  indirect  method,  and  (3)  the  two  discs  must  be  in  a  certain 
relative  position  with  respect  to  each  other  in  order  to  be  seen. 

However  this  device  will  likely  find  many  uses  in  laboratories 
which  are  not  equipped  with  the  more  expensive  speed  measur¬ 
ing  devices. 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  THE  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 

By 

Carl  J.  Knock,  Ph.D. 

The  main  series  of  experiments ;  the  supplementary  series  of  experiments ; 
relation  of  pitch  hearing  to  accuracy  in  singing ;  the  effect  of  difference  in 
quality  of  the  standard  tone;  relative  accuracy  of  the  different  intervals;  sim¬ 
ilarity  of  the  errors  of  the  different  tones ;  judging  the  difference  in  pitch 
of  one's  own  voice  and  the  pitch  of  the  fork. 

This  study  is  one  in  a  series  on  the  problems  of  pitch  of  the 
voice  in  singing  conducted  in  the  psychological  laboratory  of  the 
University  of  Iowa.  The  object  was  threefold:  (i)  to  ascer¬ 
tain  the  effect  of  accurate  checking  of  errors  on  accuracy  in  pitch 
singing;  (2)  to  determine  in  some  measure  the  elements  re¬ 
sponsible  for  inaccuracies  in  pitch  singing;  and  (3)  to  isolate 
some  factors  in  improvement  with  practice. 

The  measurements  were  all  made  with  the  tonoscope,  (5)  a 
standard  256  dv.  fork  and  a  Konig  resonator. 

There  were  two  series  of  experiments.  The  one  we  shall 
designate  as  the  Main  Series  of  Experiments  and  the  other  as  the 
Supplementary  or  Intensive  Series  of  Experiments. 

The  Main  Series  of  Experiments 

Obsen'ers.  The  observers  in  this  series,  four  men  and  eight 
women,  were  all  in  the  University  either  as  students  or  as  in¬ 
structors.  None  of  them  had  had  any  work  in  psychology  beyond 
a  year  of  elementary  psychology.  Six  of  them  were  at  that  time 
taking  that  course.  Although  three  of  the  observers  were  taking 
voice  work,  they  were  all  amateur  singers.  The  men  were  very 
much  of  the  same  even  temperament  and  had  good  control  of 
themselves.  The  women,  on  the  other  hand,  differed  very  much 
in  disposition  and  temperament,  some  of  them  being  rather  ner¬ 
vous  and  erratic.  The  three  women  who  were  taking  voice  work 
came  purposely  to  act  as  observers  because  of  their  difficulties  in 
controlling  their  voices  in  singing  in  pitch. 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


103 


Method  of  procedure.  The  experiment  in  the  main  series  con¬ 
sisted  in  the  singing  of  four  tones:  the  standard,  the  major  third, 
the  fifth,  and  the  octave.  The  standard,  or  key-note  tone,  was 
taken  from  the  256  dv.  fork.  The  fork  was  energized  by  striking 
it  on  a  suspended  piece  of  padded  lead  and  was  immediately 
presented  in  front  of  the  resonator  for  about  two  seconds.  The 
experimenter  endeavored  to  keep  timbre,  intensity,  and  duration 
of  the  tones  as  uniform  as  possible.  The  observer  began  to  sing 
the  standard  as  soon  as  he  had  the  tone  from  the  resonator  clearly 
in  mind  and,  after  a  moment’s  pause  (about  one  second),  sang 
the  interval. 

The  men  sang  the  standard  tone  as  128  dv.  The  third,  the 
fifth,  and  the  octave  should  therefore  be  160  dv.,  192  dv.,  and 
256  dv.,  respectively.  The  women  sang  the  standard  as  256  dv. ; 
their  third,  fifth,  and  octave  were  therefore  respectively  320  dv., 
384  dv.,  and  512  dv.  If  the  standard  tone  was  sung  sharp  or  flat, 
the  third  and  the  fifth  were  calculated  from  that  and  not  from  the 
the  true  standard,  because  the  interval  seemed  to  be  measured 
from  the  standard  as  sung.  Three  measures  were  used  in  the 
evaluation  of  the  data,  viz.,  average  error,  constant  error,  and 
mean  variation. 

Three  series .■ — The  main  series  of  experiments  was  divided  into 
three  parts:  namely,  Series  I,  or  first  unaided  series:  Series  II, 
or  practice  series;  and  Series  III,  or  final  unaided  series.  The 
object  of  Series  I  was  to  ascertain  how  accurately  the  observers 
sang  and  whether  they  would  of  their  own  accord  discover  the 
errors  in  their  singing  and  correct  them.  Series  II,  as  indicated, 
was  the  practice  series,  the  object  of  which  was  to  develop  finer 
tonal  concepts  and  better  voice  control.  The  object  of  Series  III 
was  to  determine  how  effective  the  training  in  Series  II  had  been, 
and  whether  or  not  gain  made  under  controlled  conditions  could 
be  carried  over  into  actual  practice  in  ordinary  singing. 

Series  I  and  III  were  identical  in  method  of  procedure.  Five 
tests  were  given  in  each  of  these  series.  Each  test  consisted  in 
singing  the  following  series  of  tones  twenty  times :  standard  and 
third ;  standard  and  fifth ;  standard  and  octave,  and  then  back  in 
reverse  order.  Hence,  the  standard  was  sung  sixty  times  and 
each  interval  twenty  times  during  a  test. 


104 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


Since  the  object  of  Series  I  was  to  determine  how  accurately 
the  observers  sang  before  training,  and  that  of  Series  III  how 
accurately  after  training,  no  information  was  given  the  observers 
in  regard  to  their  errors  in  these  series  until  the  end  of  each 
series.  In  series  I  they  were  asked  to  sing  in  their  natural  way. 
In  Series  III  they  were  told  to  keep  in  mind  the  information 
given  in  Series  II  in  regard  to  their  errors  and  tendencies  in 
singing  and  to  endeavor  to  make  such  changes  in  pitch  as  they 
thought  desirable. 

The  tests  in  Series  II  were  conducted  in  slightly  different  man¬ 
ner  from  those  of  the  other  two  series.  Instead  of  singing  the 
tones  in  the  order  given  in  the  other  series,  they  were  sung  in  the 
order :  standard,  standard  and  third,  standard  and  fifth,  standard 
and  octave,  each  ten  times  in  succession.  This  order  of  pro¬ 
cedure  was  followed  because  information  in  regard  to  the  ac¬ 
curacy  of  pitch  was  given  after  the  singing  of  each  tone,  and,  in 
order  to  profit  by  the  corrections,  immediate  repetition  of  the 
tone  was  thought  to  be  most  effective.  Information  was  given 
in  terms  of  vibrations;  i.e.,  if  the  observer  sang  the  tone  out  of 
pitch  he  was  immediately  informed  as  to  just  how  much  sharp  or 
flat  he  sang.  Having  in  mind  the  tone  just  sung,  and  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  his  error,  he  endeavored  to  make  proper  corrections  in 
the  next  trial.  Thus  it  was  possible  to  note  from  tone  to  tone  the 
nature  of  the  differences  in  sensations  produced  by  the  slight 
variations  in  pitch,  and  thereby  develop  a  more  accurate  concept 
of  the  pitch  of  the  tone.  In  order  to  get  the  correct  tone  fixed  in 
the  mind,  the  intervals  were  not  sung  until  the  standard  was 
first  sung  with  reasonable  accuracy  after  prompting.  The  stan¬ 
dard  tones  sung  before  the  interval-tones  were  not  taken  into  con¬ 
sideration  as  measures  of  accuracy  in  singing  the  standard.  Be¬ 
fore  taking  any  records  of  an  interval  a  short  time  was  spent 
in  practicing  that  interval  and  getting  the  accurate  pitch  of  that 
tone  fixed  in  the  mind. 

After  singing  each  tone,  and  before  the  experimenter  informed 
the  observer  of  his  error  in  pitch,  the  observer  gave  his  own  judg¬ 
ment  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  tone  sung  and  this  was  recorded. 
The  results  of  these  experiments  are  summarized  in  Tables  I 
and  II,  and  Figures  i -1 5. 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


105 


Table  I.  General  Summary  of  Records 
I.  First  Unaided  Series  II.  Practice  Series  III.  Final  Unaided  Series 


1st 

3rd 

5th 

8th 

1st  3rd  5th 
Observer  A 

8th 

1st 

3rd 

5th 

8th 

Av.E. 

3-6 

4.1 

47 

2.9 

1.2  1.8  1. 1 

2.0 

2.8 

44 

41 

24 

M.  V. 

3-3 

3-8 

3-9 

2.6 

14  1.5  .9 

1-7 

2.8 

2.8 

4.0 

27 

C.  E. 

2.4 

3-3 

3-2 

—1.5 

— 0,5  1.0  —0.6  — 0.9 

Observer  B 

2.0 

3-2 

3-1 

0.3 

Av.E. 

2.0 

3-9 

4-2 

5.i 

1.5  14  2.9 

1.9 

2.1 

4.0 

4.6 

4.8 

M.  V. 

1-4 

2.4 

24 

2.7 

1-5  1-3  2.5 

1.9 

14 

2-5 

2.6 

2.9 

C.  E. 

1.6 

2.7 

1.7 

4.6 

0.8  — 0.6  — 1.6 
Observer  C 

0.0 

17 

3-2 

2.8 

4-6 

Av.E. 

7-3 

5-9 

7.6 

8.5 

3.2  2.3  34 

3-6 

3.3 

35 

6.4 

5-0 

M.  V. 

3-6 

4.2 

4-9 

5-0 

3.0  2.2  3.4 

37 

24 

34 

6.0 

4.6 

C.  E. 

6.6 

3-8 

5-5 

6.7 

1.7  1.0  — 0.7 

Observer  D 

1. 1 

— 2.0  — 0.6 

04 

—1.8 

Av.E. 

4-3 

7-1 

7-8 

10.9 

1.8  .9  1.7 

3-0 

2.3 

3-5 

2.5 

2.8 

M.  V. 

2.3 

3-3 

4.6 

4-8 

1.9  1. 1  1.7 

2.4 

1.6 

2.2 

2.3 

2.6 

C.  E. 

4.0 

7.0 

7-5 

10.6 

0.4  — 0.1  — 0.4 
Observer  E 

2.2 

2.0 

27 

0.2 

07 

Av.E. 

8.2 

4-5 

6.4 

2.6 

1.8  1.8  2.0 

4.1 

34 

4.0 

4.2 

3-2 

M.  V. 

2.1 

2.1 

2.8 

2.3 

1.8  1.6  2.0 

3-0 

3-1 

37 

3-9 

3-3 

C.  E. 

5-5 

3-7 

4.2 

1-3 

— 0.6  1.3  — 0.4 

Observer  F 

0.0 

0.9 

2.2 

0.7  —07 

Av.E. 

1.8 

2.7 

2.6 

6.2 

2.0  2.2  1.6 

37 

1.2 

2.2 

2.4 

2-5 

M.  V. 

1.4 

1.8 

2.0 

3-3 

1.4  2.0  1.3 

3-1 

1.0 

2.1 

2.3 

2.6 

C.  E. 

Av.E. 
M.  V. 
C.  E. 

0.4 

2.6 

1.6 
2.1 

—2.3 

8.4 

2.1 

8-3 

— 2.0 

74 

3-7 

6-5 

-5.8 

1.7  — 1.2  — 0.6 

Observer  G 

1.4  2.6  3.0 

1.2  2.8  3.0 

0.9  0.8  0.2 

Observer  H 

—17 

0.4 

14 

14 

0.6 

0.5  —0.4 

4-6  5-6 
3-i  5.2 
1-5  —0.5 

Av.E. 

3-9 

5-3 

64 

5-9 

1.7  2.6  2.3 

5-2 

1.8 

4-3 

3-6 

3-9 

M.  V. 

2.4 

4-9 

4-9 

4.0 

1.5  2.6  2.3 

4-2 

i.5 

3-2 

3-8 

3-2 

C.  E. 

3-3 

—1.4 

—1.3 

— 0.4 

0.8  0.0  1. 1 

Observer  I 

0.9 

0.8 

0.3 

0.9 

3-0 

Av.E. 

2.2 

1-5 

1.8 

1.8 

.5  .6  .8 

1.4 

1.0 

1.6 

2.4 

2-5 

M.  V. 

•7 

.8 

1. 1 

1.4 

.5  .6  .6 

1. 1 

•9 

1. 1 

1.8 

17 

C.  E. 

— 0.2 

— 1.2 

— 1.0 

1-5 

0.3  —0.2  0.3 

Observer  J 

1.3 

0.3 

0.2 

0.6 

t-3 

Av.E. 

1. 1 

1.9 

3-9 

1.0 

.4  1.0  2.0 

•9 

1.2 

2.3 

3-0 

7 

M.  V. 

1.0 

1.5 

1-7 

1.0 

.4  .8  1.9 

.8 

1.0 

1.9 

2.5 

7 

C.  E. 

—0-3  — 0 .7 

—34 

0.6 

0.0  0.6  — 1.2 

Observer  K 

— 0.1 

0.9 

1.6 

0.9 

04 

Av.E. 

2.2 

2.4 

1.9 

34 

4  1. 1  -5 

1. 1 

14 

1.8 

1.6 

2-5 

M.  V. 

1.0 

1. 1 

1.2 

14 

•3  7  4 

1.0 

.8 

•9 

•9 

i-3 

C.  E. 

— 2.1 

2.3 

1-5 

34 

0.5  1.0  0.2 

Observer  L 

0.9 

— 0.1 

14 

0.8 

2-3 

Av.E. 

2.2 

3-8 

4-7 

3-2 

.6  .7  1. 1 

1.3 

.8 

1.6 

2-5 

17 

M.  V. 

1.0 

1. 1 

2.0 

1-5 

.6  .7  .9 

1.2 

.6 

1.2 

1-5 

1-3 

C.  E. 

2.2 

3-8 

4-7 

3-2 

— 0.1  0.4  — 0.6 

0.5 

0.2 

0.2  - 

-1.9 

— 0.1 

Observers  A  to  H  are  women ;  7  to  L  are  men.  For  each  observer  the  first 
line  gives  the  average  error  (Av.E.),  the  second  the  mean  variation  (M.V.), 
and  the  third  the  constant  error  (C.E.) 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


jo6 


Table  II.  Summary  showing  gain  in  II  and  net  gain  in  III 

MEN 

Series  I  Series  II  Series  III 


Ave.  E. 

Ave.  E. 

Gain 

Ave.  E. 

Net  Gain 

Standard 

1.9  dv. 

•5  dv. 

77% 

1. 1  dv. 

42% 

Third 

2.4 

•9 

62% 

1.8 

25% 

Fifth 

3-i 

1. 1 

64% 

2.4 

21% 

Octave 

2.3 

1.2 

47% 

1.9 

22% 

WOMEN 

Standard 

4.2 

1.8 

57% 

2.3 

45% 

Third 

5-2 

1.9 

63% 

3-8 

27% 

Fifth 

5-9 

2.3 

61% 

4-2 

30% 

Octave 

6.0 

34 

43% 

3-5 

44% 

K*y  Third  Fifth  Octav« 


Fig.  i.  Achievement  in  training  the  voice  by  the  aid  of  the  eye  (from 
Table  2).  Numerals  at  botton  denote  Series  I,  II,  and  III  respectively; 
numbers  at  left  average  error  in  the  terms  of  vibrations.  The  amount  by 
which  III  is  lower  than  I  for  each  interval  indicates  the  amount  of  net  gain 
through  the  training  of  the  eye  in  Series  II. 


The  Supplementary  Series  of  Experiments 

The  object  of  this  series  was  to  study  the  effect  of  intensive 
training  with  accurate  checking  of  errors  in  pitch.  The  method 
of  procedure  was  different  from  that  of  the  previous  series.  The 
observers  in  this  series  were  J  who  participated  in  the  main  series 
of  experiments  and  Kn,  the  writer,  who  had  gained  acquaintance 
with  the  situation  by  having  served  as  experimenter  throughout. 
Observer  J  has  a  good  baritone  voice  and  plays  the  violin,  but 
has  not  had  much  musical  training.  His  pitch  discrimination 
threshold  is  about  .4  dv.  In  the  foregoing  series  he  sang  the 
standard  and  the  octave  the  most  accurately  of  all  the  observers, 
but  he  could  not  correct  the  flatting  of  third  and  fifth.  On  ac¬ 
count  of  this  fact  he  undertook  the  more  intensive  practice. 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


io  7 


Fig.  2.  Observer  A,  Soprano.  Pitch  discrimination  (P.D.),  1.7  dv. 

The  solid  line  denotes  average  error  (A.E.)  ;  the  broken  line,  constant 
error  (C.E.).  The  figures  at  the  left  denote  number  of  vibrations  of  devia¬ 
tion  from  the  standard  (the  heavy  base  line).  The  figures  at  the  top  denote 
the  successive  days  for  each  series.  “Ave.”  gives  the  average  A.  E.  and  C.  E. 
for  each  of  the  three  series.  This  notation  is  the  same  in  succeeding  figures. 


io8 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


Fig.  3.  Observer  B,  Soprano ;  P.  D.,  .8  dv. 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


109 


IIO 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


5 

'2  - r~Z~J  4  5  o  7  S  <?  10  V~2T3  W  5"  - 

-  n  in  i  n  ie 

3 

z 

\ 

t  x — /  V/v^  /  \ 

?r.  /  \  /  v  ' 

/4  « 

4-  /V4 

W 

f  4  m.   .. .   - 

[  i\/v  ^ 

o 

7 

/ 

o 

5 

H 

/  \\ 

\\  — 

A  ~ 

c 

1 

+  i3jy 

— fJA - - — 

t 

V  

w  - - - 

\ 

o  ■  ■"  "  1  -j 

7- 

4  1 

I  23 

6  i 

5-  i 

ii  /■' 

I  21 

F 

\  £  /va  a  \ / — ^  — ; 

"  V  \ - 1  V  A  V  /  \  - 

+ 

.  

S  /  X-\  /  V  \  ^  V  - 

l!?J  V  '  \ 

,3r 

1 13  f 

ii- 

j  i  = 

<?-  f 

7-1 

I 

sj  /\  % 

3  A  — — 

2  \SJi  A— . 

1  -  \  X  /  \ 

V  .  \  /**>  ' 

Fig.  5.  Observer  D,  Alto;  P.  D.,  3.2  dv. 

VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


hi 


Fig.  6.  Observer  E,  Soprano  ;  P.  D.,  i  dv. 


1 12 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


Fig.  7.  Observer  F,  Alto ;  P.  D.,  3.3  dv. 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


3 

2 

1 

0 

<? 

a 

~ Tyi  4  5 - IT3 M‘5  t'7''5  VIO - l“Z'3'T"5 - I XVE, 

n  m  -i-  n  ur 

ST  V"  A'A/'AA 

o 

7 

U  \\ 

1  \  \ 

3 

4 

3 

2 

1 

Ifl 

—  V\_ 

\  AX/A  v '\  — 

\;  V A  .  \ 

-A 

7 

7\  A  - 

5 

i  i  A  ", 

3 

P 

1 

^J\. \  % 

/  4  ^C"- * 

V  \  ^ 

5trt  ...  \  :  \  s  \  _  .  . 

+  /  \  /  \ 

t  ? v 

^3  f  #  i 

i 

* V- 

Fig.  8.  Observer  G,  Alto;  P.  D.,  1.5  dv. 

CARL  J.  KNOCK 


114 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


ii5 


Fig.  10.  Observer  I,  Tenor;  P.  D.,  1.6  dv. 


G>  X 


116 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


Fig.  ii.  Observer  J,  Baritone;  P.D.,  .4  dv. 


Q  -C 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


ii  7 


Fig.  13.  Observer  L,  Bass;  P.  D.,  .9  dv. 


Fig.  14.  Composite  Curves,  Men. 


ii8 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


2  3  M  5 

1  2  3  4  5  6  7  fl  1  Ifl  1  2  3  W  5  AYE 

n  in  1  r 

in 

*T 

3 

c 

1 

A  \  /  \ 
v  \ 

\ 

- _ 

~5  r 

— 

5 

\  - 

3 

O 

✓ 

/ 

;  ^  - 

<■ 

1 

f 

3rd 

^   V. 

..  \  

H 

3 

7 - - - 

/ 

"  / 
jiL 

1 

a  V\ 

— 

f 

a 

-  N  V 

1 

6 

r  A 

A  V 

t /\  N. 

*1 

3 

1 

-  A  / 

*  \  * 
f  *.1 

^  "7s-  

- — 

1 

/  v 

t  \  'v 

1  \  - . 

**  .  %  A 

%h  r  v.  /  \  - T»r- 

\  1  s  v 

» 1  ' 

M 

Fig.  15.  Composite  Curves,  Women. 


Observer  Kn  is  a  tenor  and  has  had  vocal  training.  His  pitch 
discrimination  threshold  is  about  1  dv. 

These  two  observers  practiced  fifteen  minutes  daily  for  a  period 
of  fourteen  weeks.  Each  observer  practiced  by  himself,  being 
both  observer  and  experimenter,  i.e.,  he  sang  before  the  tonoscope 
and  noted  the  pitch  registered  on  the  scale.  Thus  he  perceived 
at  a  glance  the  errors  in  pitch  and  could  modify  his  voice  ac¬ 
cordingly.  No  special  order  of  singing  was  followed.  The  ob¬ 
server  generally  practiced  one  particular  interval  for  a  few  min¬ 
utes  and  then  changed  to  another  one.  As  a  rule  he  spent  the 
most  time  on  the  intervals  least  accurately  produced.  Once  or 
twice  a  week  a  record  was  taken,  the  procedure  then  being  the 
same  as  in  Series  I  and  III  of  the  main  series  of  experiments. 
The  results  are  shown  in  Table  III,  and  Figures  16  and  17. 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


119 


Table  III.  The  Intensive  Series 
Observer  J 


Day 

1st 

Av.E. 
3rd  5th 

8th 

1st 

M.V. 

3rd  5th 

8th 

1st 

C. 

3rd 

E. 

5th 

8th 

I. 

1. 1 

3-4 

34 

1.3 

1.2 

2.0 

2.7 

1.3 

.7 

14 

—1.4 

—  .1 

2. 

.8 

1-7 

14 

4 

.6 

i-7 

•9 

4 

.8 

■5 

— 1. 1 

4 

3- 

2.2 

4.6 

97 

1.0 

.8 

1.0 

•9 

1.0 

2.2 

4.6 

9-7 

—  .2 

4- 

•9 

.6 

1.9 

1.8 

.6 

.6 

•5 

14 

•9 

•7 

—1.9 

—1.4 

5. 

•5 

2.1 

2.6 

.6 

.6 

•9 

.6 

1.0 

•5 

—1.9 

— 2.6 

—  .6 

6. 

•9 

1.9 

1.6 

•3 

.6 

1.9 

1.3 

•3 

•7 

—  .1 

.8 

•3 

7. 

1. 1 

•7 

1.2 

1.0 

1.8 

•7 

.8 

1.0 

1. 1 

—  -3 

— 1.2 

— 1.0 

8. 

•5 

.6 

2.0 

.6 

•5 

.6 

1.2 

.6 

—  .1 

—  .6 

— 2.0 

—  4 

9- 

•4 

14 

2.1 

1.0 

4 

.6 

1. 1 

1.0 

•3 

—14 

— 2.1 

—  .8 

10. 

•4 

i-7 

1. 1 

.6 

4 

•7 

1. 1 

14 

•3 

—1-7 

—  -5 

—  .6 

11. 

•5 

•7 

1.2 

1.0 

•7 

•7 

.6 

•9 

•5 

—  .1 

— 1.2 

—  .6 

12. 

1.9 

2.1 

2-5 

1-5 

i-3 

•9 

i-7 

1-5 

1.9 

2.1 

2.5 

—  .1 

13. 

1*3 

i-5 

2.9 

•9 

•5 

1. 1 

2.3 

•9 

i-3 

9 

1-3 

—  -5 

14. 

.1 

1.6 

2.1 

.1 

.1 

1.0 

•9 

.1 

.0 

— 1.6 

— 2.1 

—  .1 

15. 

•3 

1-7 

3-2 

.6 

•3 

.6 

.8 

.8 

—  -3 

—i-7 

—3-2 

—  .6 

16. 

.1 

1.8 

2-5 

14 

.2 

14 

1-5 

1.6 

.0 

•9 

—2.3 

— 1.0 

1 7- 

•4 

1. 1 

1.6 

1.0 

4 

•9 

1.2 

1.0 

4 

— 1. 1 

— 1.2 

1.0 

18. 

.6 

■7 

1-5 

1.0 

•5 

•7 

i-5 

1.0 

.6 

•3 

•3 

1.0 

19. 

•5 

1.2 

2.0 

1.3 

•5 

1.2 

2.0 

1-3 

.2 

.0 

—  4 

—  .6 

Av. 

•7 

1.6 

2-5 

•9 

•5 

1.0 

1. 1 

1.0 

0.6 

0.05  —0.45  -0.3 

1. 

•4 

•9 

.8 

3-2 

Observer  Kn 

4  -5  -9 

2.0 

—  -3 

•9 

—  .6 

3-2 

2. 

1. 1 

2.2 

•7 

i-7 

•5 

•9 

•5 

•5 

— 1. 1 

2.2 

—  -5 

1.7 

3- 

.2 

1.4 

•5 

1.8 

•3 

4 

•5 

1.6 

—  .2 

14 

—  .1 

1.4 

4- 

3 

.6 

.6 

1.0 

•3 

4 

.6 

.6 

—  .1 

.6 

4 

.8 

5. 

•4 

1.0 

•5 

3-0 

4 

4 

•7 

1.0 

—  .2 

1.0 

—  -7 

2.2 

6. 

.3 

•9 

.6 

34 

•3 

•7 

.6 

1.8 

—  .1 

•5 

4 

34 

7- 

.6 

•5 

•5 

2.2 

•5 

•5 

•5 

.6 

•5 

•3 

•3 

2.2 

8. 

•3 

1.2 

•7 

2.6 

•3 

4 

•7 

1.4 

•3 

— 1.2 

•3 

2.2 

9* 

•5 

1.0 

•5 

2.2 

•5 

.6 

•5 

4 

4 

.6 

—  -3 

2.2 

10. 

•9 

.7 

i-5 

1.8 

4 

.5 

•7 

1.0 

.8 

** 

—  •/ 

—i-5 

1.8 

11. 

.6 

.6 

•7 

2.6 

4 

.6 

•7 

14 

.6 

—  -5 

.1 

2.6 

12. 

•5 

.8 

•3 

3-2 

•5 

.6 

•3 

1.2 

•3 

—  .6 

—  3 

3-2 

13. 

.8 

•4 

1.0 

1.6 

•3 

4 

•5 

1.2 

—  -7 

—  .2 

—  .8 

1.2 

Av. 

•5 

•9 

•7 

2.3 

4 

•5 

.6 

1. 1 

.0 

•3 

—  -3 

2.2 

Some  Special  Factors 

Relation  of  pitch  hearing  to  accuracy  in  singing.  The  co¬ 
efficient  of  correlation  (r,  Pearson  products-moments)  between 
pitch  discrimination  and  accuracy  of  singing  was  computed  as 
shown  in  Table  IV. 

The  relative  absence  of  correlation  here  may  at  first  seem  in¬ 
congruous.  Three  facts  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration :  ( 1 ) 
that  the  limit  of  hearing  does  not  operate  until  the  average  error 
is  so  low  as  to  be  affected  by  the  limit;  (2)  the  limit  of  hearing 


120 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


operated  primarily  only  in  the  singing  of  the  standard  and  pos¬ 
sibly  the  octave;  and  (3)  in  singing  the  interval  the  concept  of 
the  interval  presents  other  and  larger  variables  than  the  discrim¬ 
inative  hearing. 

The  two  measures  of  discrimination  and  average  error  are  not 

Z  3  W  3  6  7  a  <?  10  II  12  13  N  15  16  17  IS  l«? 


Fig.  16.  Observer  J,  Baritone;  P.  D.,  .4  dv. 


Fig.  1 7.  Observer  Kn,  Tenor;  P.  D.,  1.  dv. 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


121 


Table  IV.  Correlation 


Correlation  of  pitch  discrimination  with — 


Ave. 

Error  of  Standard,  first 

series  . 

a 

U 

44 

second 

44 

u 

it 

44 

“  third 

44 

a 

44 

44 

Intervals,  first 

44 

44 

44 

44 

second 

44 

a 

44 

44 

“  third 

44 

u 

m.v. 

44 

Standard,  first 

44 

a 

44 

44 

second 

44 

44 

44 

44 

“  third 

44 

44 

44 

44 

Intervals,  first 

44 

44 

44 

44 

second 

44 

44 

44 

44 

“  third 

44 

Ave.  Error  of  Judgment  of  standard,  second  series 


44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

third, 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

fifth, 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

octave, 

44 

44 

44 

44 

Standard 

in 

last  five  tests. 

Series  II 

44 

m.v. 

44 

Standard 

44 

44  44  44 

Series  II 

44 

Error 

44 

Intervals 

44 

44  44  44 

Series  II 

r. 

P.E. 

0 

•34 

.17 

.08 

.20 

.36 

.17 

.08 

.20 

.09 

.20 

.12 

.19 

.10 

.29 

.0 

. — 

•25 

.18 

.08 

.20 

.03 

.20 

•44 

.16 

.19 

.19 

07 

.20 

.21 

.19 

.67 

.09 

.41 

.16 

.08 

.20 

comparable.  We  have  no  exact  data  on  the  relative  value  of 
these.  Professor  Seashore  suggests  that,  until  data  are  available, 
we  may  consider  the  figures  in  the  discrimination  records  as  of 
about  double  the  value  of  the  figures  for  the  average  error  record; 
e.g.,  if  this  were  true,  a  person  with  a  pitch  discrimination  of 
2  dv.  should  after  training  be  able  to  sing  with  an  average  error 
of  i  dv.  On  this  interpretation  it  is  evident  that  the  threshold 
of  discrimination  was  not  an  important  conditioning  factor  in 
series  i. 

There  is  little  or  no  correlation  between  pitch  discrimination, 
and  average  error  in  singing  for  the  singing  of  the  first  series. 
The  reason  is  obvious.  They  were  not  singing  accurately  enough 
to  be  hampered  by  the  limit  of  hearing.  The  median  threshold 
of  hearing  for  these  singers  is  1.2  dv.  The  median  average 
error  in  singing  the  standard  is  2.7  dv. 

If  we  turn  then  to  the  second  series  in  which  the  average  error 
was  materially  reduced  to  an  approximate  physiological  limit,  we 
find  that  the  threshold  of  hearing  asserts  itself  both  in  the  sing¬ 
ing  of  the  standard  and  in  the  singing  of  the  octave,  particularly 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  second  series  in  which  the  limit  had 
actually  been  approached.  Here  we  find  the  average  error  of 
the  standard  in  the  last  five  tests,  r,  .67,  p.e.,  .09,  and  the  correla- 


122 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


tion  for  the  mean  variation  of  the  same  is  r,  41,  p.e.,  .16. 
Correlation  of  error  in  judgment  of  average  error  for  the 
standard  in  the  second  series,  r,  .44,  p.e.,  .16,  is  significant. 
When  we  consider  that  there  are  many  other  factors  besides  the 
limit  of  hearing  that  condition  the  average  error  in  singing  even 
after  training,  this  positive  correlation  would  seem  very  reason¬ 
able  as  interpreting  the  facts. 

The  correlation  of  pitch  discrimination  with  accuracy  in  sing¬ 
ing  of  the  interval  is  really  not  relevant  for  the  reason  that 
accuracy  here  depends  primarily  upon  the  precision  of  the  con¬ 
cept  or  image  of  the  interval;  and  theoretically  pitch  discrimina¬ 
tion  would  in  the  main  operate  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  significant 
of  a  general  tendency  to  ear-mindedness.  These  considerations 
throw  light  upon  the  relative  absence  of  correlation  that  Miles 
(4)  found  as  his  observers  were  all  without  special  training,  on 
the  same  basis  as  our  observers  in  Series  I.  Had  he  trained 
them  as  in  our  Series  II  he  would  probably  have  found  marked 
relationship  between  pitch  hearing  and  performance. 

The  effect  of  difference  in  quality  of  the  standard  tone. — Miles 
compared  the  accuracy  of  reproduction  of  tones  from  the  tuning- 
fork,  the  violin  string,  and  the  organ  pipe,  and  found  the  fol¬ 
lowing  errors,  respectively:  fork,  1.6  dv. ;  string,  1.5  dv. ;  organ 
pipe,  .9  dv.  Commenting  upon  these  results,  he  says:  “Judging 
by  the  magnitude  of  the  average  errors,  the  record  is  in  favor  of 
the  organ  pipe.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  this  tone 
is  more  nearly  like  that  of  the  human  voice.  .  .  .  From  the  ob¬ 
servation  it  seems  fair  to  conclude  that  richness  favors  accuracy 
in  the  reproduction  of  any  particular  standard.”  (2) 

A  number  of  other  investigations  have  touched  upon  this  point, 
but  none  of  them  are  conclusive  because  the  problem  has  not  been 
isolated.  Thus  Klunder  (3)  and  Cameron  (2)  used  organ 
tones.  The  former  found  as  the  mean  average  error  of  his 
observers  .47  dv.,  and  the  latter  6.6  dv.  Berlage  (1)  had  three 
observers  imitating  the  human  voice  with  the  average  error  of 
.5  dv. 

In  order  to  determine  the  relative  difficulty  in  reproducing  the 
tone  of  the  fork  and  the  tone  of  the  human  voice,  four  women 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE  VOICE 


1 23 


whose  errors  in  imitating  the  fork  had  been  found  to  range  from 
7  dv.  to  12  dv.  were  given  a  special  test,  the  result  of  which  is 
given  in  Table  V  in  terms  of  average  error  and  constant  error. 


Table  V.  Reproducing  fork  tone,  own  tone,  and  voice  tone  of  another 


Imitating 

Imitating  another 
person’s  voice 

Imitating 

fork 

own 

voice 

P.D. 

Av.E. 

C.E. 

Av.E.  C.E. 

Av.E. 

C.E. 

Wh. 

1  dv. 

8.8  dv. 

8.8  dv. 

2  dv.  2  dv. 

.8  dv. 

.6  dv. 

Ilf. 

2.3 

74 

74 

•5  .2 

4 

4 

Hu. 

47 

12.6 

8.9 

7-2  3-5 

34 

3-3 

Co. 

1 

7-1 

7-1 

i.3  1-3 

.6 

.6 

The  results  show  in 

a  striking 

manner  what  a 

marked  effect 

the  mere  difference  in  tone  quality  of  the  standard  makes  in  the 
accuracy  of  singing.  The  tuning-fork  is  found  to  be  far  the 
most  difficult,  and  one’s  own  voice  the  easiest  to  reproduce.  In 
explaining  this,  one  must  take  into  account  the  actual  differences 
in  tone  quality,  the  differences  in  familiarity  with  the  respective 
tones,  the  differences  in  location,  and  the  differences  in  volume; 
but  most  of  all,  the  role  of  kinaesthetic  imagery  and  kinaesthetic 
sensations. 

Unfamiliarity  with  the  pure  tone  of  the  forks  with  resonator 
may  in  part  account  for  the  large  errors  in  the  fork  standard. 
However,  in  the  case  of  Wh.  this  could  not  have  been  a  strong 
factor,  since  she  was  one  of  the  regular  observers  in  the  main 
experiment  and  had  ample  time  to  get  accustomed  to  the  fork. 
The  fact  that  one  can  reproduce  one’s  own  tone  more  accurately 
than  one  can  reproduce  a  tuning-fork  does  not  prove  that  the 
latter  is  heard  less  accurately.  It  may  be  that  there  are  certain 
normal  illusions  present  in  the  hearing  and  the  singing  of  one’s 
own  tone  that  are  eliminated  by  the  fact  that  the  tone  one  hears 
is  the  same  as  the  tone  sung. 

Relative  accuracy  of  the  different  intervals.  Table  VI  sums 
up  the  comparison  of  the  different  intervals  for  accuracy  in  our 
data.  Those  of  Seashore  and  Jenner  (6)  are  added  for  con¬ 
venience. 

In  our  figures  the  standard,  the  third  and  the  fifth  are  sung 
with  about  equal  accuracy,  in  terms  of  percent  or  part  of  a  tone, 
and  the  octave  is  sung  noticeably  better.  Seashore  and  Jenner’s 


124 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


Table  VI.  Comparison  of  Intervals  in  Accuracy 


Standard 

Knock ,  1914 
Third 

Fifth 

Octave 

dv. 

% 

dv.  % 

dv. 

% 

dv. 

% 

Men 

1.2 

8 

1.7  8.5 

2.2 

9.1 

1.8 

5-6 

Women 

2.8 

8-7 

3-6  9 

4-i 

8.5 

4.2 

6-5 

Men 

.8 

5 

Seashore  and  Jenner,  1906 
2.1  10  2.9 

12 

3-2 

10 

(6)  conclusion  is  that  “The  major  third,  the  fifth,  and  the  octave 

are  approximately  equally  difficult  intervals  to  sing . The 

average  error  expressed  in  terms  of  vibrations,  as  in  the  tables, 
shows  that  the  difficulty  of  a  natural  interval  varies  approximately 
with  the  magnitude  of  the  interval.”  The  two  sets  of  results 
therefore  disagree  on  the  standard  and  the  octave. 

A  study  of  the  mean  variations  in  errors  in  the  singing  of  the 
different  intervals  seems  to  further  substantiate  the  conclusions 
just  stated. 

Table  VII  shows  that  the  mean  variations,  in  both  the  standard 
and  the  intervals,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  average  error;  the 
percentages  are  about  the  same  in  the  third  and  the  fifth,  and 
those  of  the  octaves  are  the  smallest.  This,  then,  with  the  figures 


Table  VII.  Mean 

Variations  for 

All  Records 

in 

this  Study 

Standard 

Third 

Fifth 

Octave 

dv.  % 

dv.  % 

dv. 

% 

dv.  % 

Men 

.7  4.2 

1. 1  5-5 

14 

5-6 

1.2  3-7 

Women 

2.  6 

2.6  6.5 

3-2 

6.5 

3-  4-7 

of  Seashore  and  Jenner  (6)  shows  that,  in  musical  terms,  the 
third  and  the  fifth  are  sung  with  equal  precision  but  not  with 
as  high  precision  as  on  the  standard  and  the  octave. 

In  their  study  on  minimal  change  in  pitch  in  singing,  Seashore 
and  Jenner  (6)  found  that  the  minimal  change  of  pitch  in  sing¬ 
ing  the  intervals  varied  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
intervals.  The  minimal  change  is  a  relatively  constant  fraction 
of  a  tone  within  this  octave.  This  is  true  for  both  the  aided  and 
unaided  series.  If  we  reduce  the  records  from  vibrations  to  twen¬ 
ty-fifths  of  a  tone,  the  minimal  change  is  3.1,  3.1,  3.6,  3.3,  for 
the  fundamental,  the  major  third,  the  fifth  and  the  octave  re¬ 
spectively.  This  is  surprising  because  within  this  part  of  a  tonal 
range  the  pitch  discrimination  is  normally  measured  by  a  constant 
vibration  frequency  instead  of  by  constant  part  of  a  tone. 


VISUAL  TRAINING  OF  PITCH  OF  THE *  VOICE 


125 


Table  VIII.  Errors  in  Judgment  of  Errors  in  Series  II 

Standard  Third  Fifth  Octave 

dv.  %  dv.  %  dv.  %  dv.  % 

Men  .5  3  .7  3.5  .8  3.3  1.1  34 

Women  1.6  5  1.9  4.8  2.3  4.8  2.9  4.5 

It  would  appear  from  these  results  that  accuracy  in  judging  the 
errors  of  the  different  tones  varies  proportionately  to  the  vibra¬ 
tion  frequency  of  the  tone. 

Similarity  of  the  errors  of  the  different  tones.  Another  in¬ 
teresting  fact  to  be  noted  in  Series  I  and  III  is  the  similarity  in 
the  errors  of  the  different  intervals  on  a  given  day:  if  one 
interval  is  sung  sharp  or  flat  there  is  a  tendency  to  sing  the  other 
intervals  also  with  errors  in  the  same  direction.  The  greatest 
similarity  is  found  in  the  third  and  the  fifth;  the  constant  error 
curves  of  the  third  and  the  fifth  are  similar  in  the  case  of  every 
observer. 

Since,  in  Series  II,  each  tone  was  sung  and  practiced  by  itself 
a  number  of  times  and  a  complete  break  was  made  between  the 
singing  of  the  different  tones,  no  common  tendency  was  apt  to 
be  carried  over  from  one  tone  to  the  other;  and  since  efforts 
were  constantly  made  to  change  the  pitch  of  the  tone,  automatism 
was  seriously  interfered  with.  It  is,  therefore,  not  surprising 
to  find  that  there  was  little  or  no  similarity  in  the  errors  of  the 
different  tones  and  that  there  was  a  great  variation  in  the 
reactions  throughout  this  series. 

Judging  the  difference  in  pitch  of  one's  own  voice  and  the  pitch 
of  the  fork.  Experiments  in  judging  the  pitch  of  another  per¬ 
son’s  tones  showed  that  the  observers  could  discriminate  much 
more  accurately  between  the  pitch  of  another  person’s  voice  and 
the  pitch  of  the  fork  than  between  the  pitch  of  their  own  voices 
and  the  pitch  of  the  fork,  the  problem  was  to  ascertain  why  this 
difference  should  exist.  The  following  experiment  was  under¬ 
taken  with  the  assistance  of  three  women  who  had  a  tendency  to 
sing  6  dv.  to  14  dv.  high  when  imitating  the  standard,  in  answer 
to  the  question,  “Does  a  person  who  sings  sharp  or  flat  do  so  be¬ 
cause  he  hears  the  pitch  of  the  fork  higher  or  lower  than  it  is?” 

A  standard  tone  from  the  fork  was  sounded  and  the  observer 
endeavored  to  reproduce  the  given  tone.  If  the  reproduced  tone 


126 


CARL  J.  KNOCK 


was  sharp, — they  all  sang  sharp,' — a  second  fork  was  imme¬ 
diately  sounded  that  was  either  the  same  as  the  standard  fork 
or  had  the  same  pitch  as  the  tone  of  the  voice;  i.e.,  the  second 
tone  produced  by  a  fork  was  either  the  same  or  lower  than  the 
pitch  of  the  voice.  The  observer  was  then  asked  to  judge 
whether  the  second  fork  was  the  same,  higher,  or  lower  than  the 
pitch  of  the  voice. 

Table  IX.  Comparison  of  Tuning  Fork  and  Voice 

When  the  second  fork  was  When  the  second  fork  was 

the  same  as  the  standard,  the  same  as  the  voice, 


it 

was  judged, 

it 

was  judged, 

Same 

Higher 

Lower 

Same 

Higher 

Lower 

Ilf. 

56% 

36% 

8% 

16.6% 

79-2% 

4.2% 

Hu. 

58% 

25% 

17% 

23.3% 

68.4% 

6.3% 

So. 

61.5% 

11.5% 

27% 

0 

100% 

0 

Ave. 

58.5% 

24.2% 

1 7.2% 

14-3% 

81.9% 

3-5% 

The  results  show  that  when  the  standard  fork  was  also  sounded 
as  the  second  fork,  although  it  was  generally  6  dv.  to  14  dv.  lower 
than  the  tone  of  the  voice,  its  pitch  was  judged  the  same  as  the 
pitch  of  the  voice  in  58%  of  the  cases,  higher  in  24%  of  the 
cases,  and  lower  in  only  17%  of  the  cases.  When  the  second 
fork  had  the  same  pitch  as  that  of  the  voice,  it  was  judged 
higher  than  the  voice  tone  in  81%  of  the  cases,  same  in  14% 
of  the  cases,  and  lower  in  3.5%  of  the  cases.  These  results  in¬ 
dicate  quite  positively  that  there  was  a  tendency  on  the  part  of 
these  observers  either  to  hear  the  fork  higher  than  the  voice  or 
the  voice  lower  than  the  fork.* 


*  Editor’s  Note:  After  the  presentation  of  concrete  data,  the  original  ar¬ 
ticle  contains  an  analytical  study  of  the  sensory,  central  and  motor  process 
which  condition  and  limit  or  facilitate  acquisition  of  skill  as  in  singing  true 
pitch.  However,  during  the  delay  in  publication,  on  account  of  the  war 
situation,  such  new  turns  have  been  given  to  some  of  these  problems  by  Dr. 
Knock’s  successors  in  the  laboratory  that  publication  of  that  section  is  deemed 
inadvisable  at  the  present  time. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


1 27 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Berlage,  F.  Der  Einfluss  von  Artikulation  und  Gehor 

beim  Nachsingen  von  Stimmklangen.  Psychol.  Stud.,  1910, 

vi,  39-140. 

2.  Cameron,  E.  H.  Tonal  Reactions.  Psychol.  Rev.,  Monog. 

Sup  pi.,  1907,  VIII,  227-300. 

3.  Klunder,  A.  Ueber  die  Genauigkeit  der  Stimme.  Arch.  f. 

Anat.  u.  Physiol.,  (Du  Bois  Reymond),  (Physiol.  Abth.), 
1879,  IX9>  ff- 

4.  Miles,  W.  R.  Accuracy  of  Voice  in  Simple  Pitch  Singing. 

Univ.  of  Iowa  Stud,  in  Psychol.  1914,  VI,  13-66. 

5.  Seashore,  C.  E.  The  Tonoscope.  Univ.  of  Ioiva  Stud,  in 

Psychol.  1914,  VI,  1 -1 2. 

6.  Seashore,  C.  E.,  and  Jenner,  E.  A.  Training  the  Voice  by 

Eye  in  Singing.  /.  of  Ed.  Psychol.  1910,  I,  31 1-320. 


A  SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT 
IN  A  MUSIC  SCHOOL1 

By 

Esther  Allen  Gaw,  Ph.  D. 

The  tests  employed;  plan  of  presentation;  systematic  inquiry ;  teachers 
rating;  Case  A;  Case  B;  gene?'al  tendencies  of  capacities  in  music  students; 
brief  mention  of  individual  cases;  some  practical  suggestions;  bibliography. 

The  measurements,  of  which  this  paper  is  a  discussion,  were 
made  from  a  group  of  music  students  in  the  School  of  Music 
of  Northwestern  University  in  the  autumn  months  of  1918. 
The  tests  were  started  with  thirty  observers  but  through  sick¬ 
ness  four  of  these  did  not  complete  the  series.  The  students 
were  women  of  from  seventeen  to  twenty-five  years  of  age,  who 
had  been  in  the  conservatory  from  one  to  four  years.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  get  some  who  had  been  particularly  suc¬ 
cessful  and  some  who  had  been  unsuccessful.  The  ones  who 
were  judged  as  unsuccessful  were  chosen  largely  on  account  of 
failure  in  ear-training  classes.  Unfortunately  two  of  those  who 

1  The  Editor’s  note — The  following  paper  is  an  extract  from  a  much 
more  extensive  paper  presented  as  a  thesis  for  the  doctorate  in  1919.  The 
section  here  presented  aims  to  show  merely  what  procedure  was  devised 
and  used  in  the  study  of  talent  in  a  music  school,  with  particular  application 
to  the  resulting  description  of  an  individual’s  talent.  For  each  of  the 
twenty-six  pupils  examined,  a  talent  chart  was  made  and  on  the  basis  of 
this,  with  supplementary  information  as  described,  a  plain  statement  is  made 
for  each  case.  These  statements  are  limited  to  the  recital  of  the  facts 
gathered  as  they  should  be  given  to  the  music  teacher  in  the  way  of  in¬ 
formation  about  the  pupil. 

As  all  that  we  aimed  at  was  to  try  out  and  illustrate  the  technique  of  pro¬ 
cedure,  only  two  of  the  twenty-six  individual  reports  are  here  published,  and 
these  merely  as  samples  of  the  method.  The  original  paper  contained  a 
number  of  additional  studies  which  will  be  published  separately  either  by 
the  author  or  by  other  collaborators  in  the  laboratory.  For  those  who  are 
interested  in  installing  talent  rating  in  music  schools,  it  should  be  said  that 
investigation  of  this  procedure  has  been  continued  during  the  last  three 
years  and  a  fuller  procedure,  revised  up  to  date,  will  appear  in  the  next 
volume  of  these  Studies. 


C.  E.  S. 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


129 


showed  an  inability  to  cope  with  the  problems  in  ear-training, 
and  whose  measurements  would  have  been  interesting  from  a 
diagnostic  standpoint,  did  not  complete  the  tests  on  account  of 
sickness. 

These  tests  have  been  used  in  various  forms  in  the  Psych¬ 
ological  Laboratory  at  the  State  University  of  Iowa.  The 
natural  capacities  of  many  people,  including  music  students,  have 
been  measured,  with  the  result  of  affording  helpful  advice;  but 
this  is  the  first  effort  to  secure  any  considerable  number  of 
measurements  in  any  given  school.  The  task  of  testing  a  num¬ 
ber  of  those  who  have  decided  to  study  music  seriously  was 
undertaken  with  two  ideas  in  mind :  ( 1 )  to  find  out  how  the 
music  students  would  rank  in  the  various  forms  of  the  test,  and 
(2)  to  develop  a  procedure  in  talent  analysis  which  would  be 
of  service  in  the  music  schools  where  they  might  be  used. 

The  tests  employed 

Auditory  Acuity — a  test  of  the  sensitiveness  to  sound  in 
each  ear  as  measured  by  means  of  the  Seashore  audiometer 
(10,  p.  90). 

The  Sense  of  Pitch — a  test  of  the  ability  to  hear  differences 
in  pitch,  200  trials  given  with  tuning  forks  by  the  group  method 
(9,  pp.  21-60). 

The  Sense  of  Intensity — a  test  of  the  ability  to  hear  differences 
in  loudness,  200  trials  given  with  the  audiometer  by  the  group 
method  (10,  p.  95). 

The  Sense  of  Time — a  test  of  the  ability  to  hear  differences 
in  the  duration  of  time  intervals,  200  trials,  or  40  trials  each 
on  the  differences  of  .20  sec.,  .14  sec.,  .09  sec.,  .05  sec.,  and  .02 
sec.,  given  by  means  of  a  telegraph  click,  by  the  group  method 
(10,  p.  108). 

The  Sense  of  Consonance — a  test  of  the  ability  to  hear  the 
relative  consonance  or  dissonance  of  two  notes  sounded  sim¬ 
ultaneously,  100  trials  given  with  the  piano  by  the  group  method 
(10,  pp.  155-156). 

Simple  Reaction  to  Sound — a  test  of  the  ability  to  react  to  a 
simple  click  heard  in  a  telephone  receiver,  20  trials  measured 
by  the  smaller  chronograph  (10,  p.  17°)* 


130 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


Complex  Reaction  to  Sound — a  test  of  the  ability  to  act  with 
discrimination  and  choice  to  two  sounds  clearly  distinguishable 
in  intensity,  15  reactions  to  the  faint  sound  (10,  p.  17°)- 

Motor  Reliability — a  measure  of  the  comparative  steadiness 
of  reaction  based  upon  the  mean  variation  in  simple  and  com¬ 
plex  reaction. 

Auditory  Serial  Action — a  test  of  the  ability  to  act  with  dis¬ 
crimination  and  choice  in  a  continuous  series  with  auditory 
stimuli,  five  series  of  seventy-five  reactions,  measured  by  means 
of  a  device  such  that  the  four  sounds  were  made  successively 
by  the  motion  of  a  carriage  of  a  typewriter  on  which  the  ob¬ 
server  recorded  the  proper  responses  (4  and  6,  pp.  1-1 7) . 

Visual  Serial  Action — a  test  of  the  ability  to  react  to  visual 
stimuli,  five  series  of  seventy  reactions  measured  as  above  ex¬ 
cept  that  the  stimuli  were  visual  (4). 

Free  Action — a  test  of  the  ability  to  mark  time  at  a  uniform 
rate,  10  records  after  training,  measured  on  the  chronograph 
(9-  PP-  175-176  and  2,  p.  335). 

Timed  Action — a  test  of  the  ability  to  keep  time  with  a  sound 
recurring  at  the  rate  of  one  per  second,  10  records  after  train¬ 
ing,  measured  as  above  (10,  p.  175). 

Rhymthic  Action — a  test  of  the  ability  to  mark  the  rhythm, 
30  trials,  recorded  by  the  graphic  method  with  the  chronograph 
and  measured  by  that  instrument  (10,  p.  175). 

Grip — a  test  of  strength,  the  best  record  of  three  trials  of 
the  strongest  hand,  measured  by  the  Smedley  dynamometer 
(13,  p.  101). 

Precision — a  test  of  accuracy  in  direction  of  movement,  30 
trials  with  the  right  hand  measured  by  means  of  a  steadiness 
gauge  and  a  needle  completing  an  electric  circuit,  somewhat  as 
described  by  Whipple  (13,  p.  157). 

Singing  Key — a  test  of  the  ability  to  sing  the  tone  d,  290  d.  v. 
sounded  by  tuning  forks,  30  trials,  measured  by  the  tonoscope 
(11). 

Singing  Interval — a  test  of  the  ability  to  sing  the  intervals 
in  the  first  two  measures  of  America,  and  the  major  third,  10 
trials  of  each  measured  as  above. 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


131 

Control  of  Voice — a  test  of  the  ability  to  sing  small  differ¬ 
ences  in  pitch,  20  trials  measured  as  above  (11;  5). 

Range  of  Voice — estimated  by  the  singing  teacher  of  each 
student. 

Quality  of  Voice — an  estimate  of  the  comparative  tone  quality 
of  the  voice,  made  by  the  teacher  rating  his  pupils  as  described 
in  the  questionnaire  for  teachers,  below. 

Auditory  Imagery — a  test  of  the  ability  to  image  auditory 
sensations  measured  by  the  introspection  of  each  observer,  group 
method,  20  trials  as  described  by  Seashore  (10,  pp.  219-220). 

Visual  Imagery — a  test  of  the  ability  to  image  visual  sensa¬ 
tions,  measured  by  the  introspection  of  each  observer,  21  trials, 
as  described  by  Seashore  (8,  p.  107). 

Motor  Imagery — a  test  of  the  ability  to  image  motor  sensa¬ 
tions,  measured  by  the  introspection  of  each  observer,  10  trials 
as  described  by  Seashore  (8,  p.  108). 

Tonal  Memory — a  test  of  immediate  memory  of  nonsense 
groups  of  tones,  150  trials  given  on  the  piano  (10,  p.  239). 

Auditory-motor  Learning — a  test  of  the  ability  to  learn  as 
shown  in  auditory  serial  action  given  on  five  successive  days.2 

2  The  median  time  for  the  response  to  the  75  stimuli  in  auditory  serial 
action  was  64.9  sec.  on  the  first  day,  52.3  sec.  on  the  second  day,  47  sec.  on 
the  third  day,  43.6  sec.  on  the  fourth  day,  and  41.4  sec.  on  the  fifth  day. 
The  median  number  of  mistakes  for  the  first  day  was  5.4,  for  the  second 
day  4.1,  for  the  third  day  4.4,  for  the  fourth  day  5.0,  and  for  the  fifth  day 
5.6.  Some  observers  made  more  than  the  average  number  of  mistakes  and 
some  made  less.  It  was  desirable  to  credit  those  who  made  a  small  number 
of  mistakes  and  to  debit  those  who  made  a  large  number.  To  do  this  it 
seemed  fair  to  take  off  for  each  error  in  excess  of  the  median  error,  as 
much  time  as  is  required  for  each  response.  The  median  time  for  the 
series  of  seventy-five  trials  on  the  first  day  was  64.9.  It  therefore  took  one 
seventy-fifth  of  64.9  sec.  for  each  response,  or  0.87  sec.  Dividing  the  median 
time  of  the  other  four  days  by  seventy-five  we  find  that  each  response  on 
the  second  day  required  .70  sec.,  on  the  third  day  .63  sec.,  on  the  fourth  day 
.59  sec.,  and  on  the  fifth  day  .54  sec. 

If  the  observer  made  one  error  more  than  the  median  error  on  the  first 
day  .87  sec.  was  added  to  her  time  record  for  that  day;  if  she  made  two  errors 
less  than  the  median  error  1.7  sec.  was  subtracted  from  her  time  record.  In 
this  way  a  weighted  time  record  for  the  five  days  was  obtained.  A  per¬ 
centile  rank  table  on  the  basis  of  the  median  time  record  as  average,  or  50 
percentile  rank,  was  then  established  for  each  day  separately.  These  are 
the  ranks  which  are  used  in  discussing  the  learning  power  of  each  individual. 


132 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


Visual-motor  Learning — A  test  of  the  ability  to  learn  as 
shown  in  visual  serial  action.3 

Intelligence — a  measurement  of  general  intelligence  by  means 
of  the  Stanford  revision  of  the  Binet  test  (12). 

All  of  the  measurements  were  reduced  to  percentile  rank;  i.e., 
rank  on  a  scale  of  one  to  one  hundred,  one  being  the  lowest  rank 
obtainable  in  any  measurement,  100  the  highest  and  50  exactly 
the  average.  The  results  in  all  the  tests  have  been  reduced  to 
this  common  basis  and  are  thus  comparable  (10,  p.  15). 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  measurements  the  norm  of  per¬ 
centile  rank  was  that  of  a  large  group  of  adults  as  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


Test  No.  of  cases 

Pitch  . 

1265 

Intensity 

365 

Time 

237 

Consonance 

248 

Free  Action 

275 

Timed  Action 

275 

Rhythmic  Action 

275 

Grip 

26 

Whipple  adult  norm 

Precision 

57 

(women) 

Singing  Key 

158 

(women) 

Singing  Interval 

158 

(women) 

Control  of  Voice 

158 

(women) 

Auditory  Imagery 

339 

Visual  Imagery 

339 

Motor  Imagery 

339 

Memory 

275 

The  records  in  simple  and  complex  reaction  were  given  ap¬ 
proximate  rank  by  reference  to  distribution  in  various  groups  of 
records  on  reaction  time.  Auditory  and  visual  serial  action  had 
to  be  ranked  by  themselves  because  this  was  the  first  attempt  to 
get  a  large  number  of  women’s  records  and  we  had  no  norms 
for  women.  The  same  is  true  of  the  learning  curves  obtained 
for  the  successive  trials  in  these  two  tests. 


3  The  median  times  for  visual  serial  action  were  arranged  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  those  for  auditory  reaction,  being  for  the  five  respective 
days  51.5,  44.9,  41.4,  40.6  and  39.5  sec.  The  median  number  of  errors  for  the 
five  days  is  5.5,  4.2,  4.4,  4.5  and  4.6.  The  weighted  time  record  for  each 
day  was  obtained  just  as  in  auditory  serial  action  and  the  visual  learning 
determined  upon  the  basis  of  the  weighted  records  of  each  individual. 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


133 


The  charts  used  as  a  graphic  illustration  of  each  individual 
measurement  are  made  from  the  percentile  rank  grades.  The 
tests  are  listed  at  the  left.  The  figures  at  the  top  of  the  graph 
indicate  percentile  rank  which  is  shown  by  a  vertical  line  in  a 
square  opposite  the  corresponding  test.  The  line  beneath  50  is 
made  heavy  in  order  that  the  measurements  above  and  below 
average  may  be  identified  immediately.  (See  Fig.  1). 

The  time  taken  for  giving  the  test  amounted  in  all  to  about 


0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100 


0  Id  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  .100 


Sense  of  Pitch...* . 

Sense  of  Intensity - 

Sense  of  Time - 

Sense  of  Consonance.... 

Tonal  Memory . 

Auditory  Imagery . 

Visual  Imagery... . 

Motor  Imagery.. . 

Auditory  Acuity . . 

Motility. . . . 

Grip. . . . 

Precision.. . 

Simple  Reaction - .... 

Complex  Reaction.. - 

Auditory  Serial  Action.. 
Visual  Serial  Action.... 

Free  Action - - - 

Timed  Action.. . . 

Rhythmic  Action....... 

Motor  Reliability.. - 

Singing  Key...' - 

Singing  Interval - 

Control  of  Voice . 

Range  of  Voice. ...... T. 

Quality  of  Voice - ... 

Visual  Motor  Learning  . 
Auditor^  Motor  Learning 
Intelligence.-.. •- — . 


r 

fr 

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i 

r 

1 

i!o 

Te 

St 

1 

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T 

r 

i 

r 

r 

l 

T 

T 

■■ 

1 

j 

lljl 

Sense  of  Pitch . 

Sense  of  Intensity - .. 

Sense  of  Time... _ .... 

Sense  of  Consonance.... 

Tonal  Memory - 

Auditory  Imagery-*--- 

Visual  Imagery _ 

Motor  Imagery - - 

Auditory  Acuity - 

Motility . ........ 

Grip . 

Precision.*... - - 

Simple  Reaction - .... 

Complex  Reaction . 

Auditory  Serial  Action.. 
Visual  Serial  Action  .... 

Free  Action. . . 

Timed  Action _ ... 

Rhythmic  Action . 


Singing  Key - .... 

Singing  Interval.... 

Control  of  Voice - 

Range  of  Voice . 

Quality  of  Voice.... 
Visual  Motor  Learning.. 


Intelligence. 


r 

T 

T 

J 

1 

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T 

1 

no 

Te 

St 

1 

i 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

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1 

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1 

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Case  A. 


Case  B. 


Fig.  i.  Two  musical  talent  charts. 


eleven  hours  for  each  observer.  This  was  taken  up  in  twelve 
personal  appointments  of  one-half  hour  each,  six  group  tests 
lasting  about  forty-five  minutes,  and  one  hour  appointment  for 
the  giving  of  the  intelligence  test.  Each  student  came  usually 
twice  a  week. 


134 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


The  measurements  seem  reliable  on  the  whole.  The  con¬ 
ditions  for  giving  them  were  favorable.  The  students  were 
intensely  interested  and  eager  to  put  forth  their  best  effort  every 
time  they  came  to  their  appointments.  There  was  time  enough 
to  verify  the  group  tests  and  examine  their  results  when  in¬ 
ternal  evidence  indicated  that  the  true  physiological  threshhold 
(9,  p.  49)  had  not  been  found.  Students  were  always  excused 
and  given  another  appointment  when  it  was  realized  that  they 
were  not  in  the  proper  physical  condition  for  the  test.  There 
was  in  general  hearty  co-operation  of  the  faculty  and  of  the 
students. 

Plan  of  presentation 

In  order  to  understand  the  discussion  of  the  individual  mu¬ 
sical  talent  charts  it  is  advisable  to  consider  in  a  preliminary  way 
some  of  the  facts  that  will  be  general  in  all.  Each  student  will 
be  discussed  according  to  the  following  outline : 

I.  Musical  History  of  the  Family 

II.  Personal  Musical  History 

III.  Musical  Sensitivity 

A.  Simple  forms  of  impression 

1.  Sense  of  pitch 

2.  Sense  of  intensity 

3.  Sense  of  time 

4.  Sense  of  extensity 

B.  Complex  forms  of  impression 

1.  Sense  of  rhythm 

2.  Sense  of  consonance 

3.  Sense  of  timbre 

4.  Sense  of  volume 

IV.  Musical  action 

1.  Simple  reaction 

2.  Complex  reaction 

3.  Motor  reliability 

4.  Auditory  serial  action 

5.  Visual  serial  action 

6.  Control  of  pitch 

7.  Range  and  quality  of  voice 

8.  Control  of  time  and  rhythm 

9.  Grip  and  precision 

V.  Musical  memory  and  imagination 

1.  Auditory  imagery 

2.  Visual  imagery 

3.  Motor  imagery 

4.  Creative  imagination 

5.  Memory  span 

6.  Learning  power 

VI.  Musical  intellect 

VII.  Musical  feeling 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


135 


Systematic  inquiry 

The  manner  of  calculating  the  number  of  lessons  and  the 
time  spent  in  practicing  and  playing  is  shown  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  questionnaires.  The  questionnaire  for  the  musical  case 
history  of  each  student  was  filled  out  in  individual  conference 
with  the  examiner.  In  this  way  there  could  be  no  misunder¬ 
standing  about  the  meaning  of  each  question,  or  about  getting 
all  the  information  that  was  desired.  It  was  possible  to  follow 
up  matters  of  special  interest  and  meaning  with  each  student. 
The  points  in  the  following  questionnaire  were  always  brought 
up  by  the  examiner  so  that  the  information  about  each  student 
should  cover  the  same  facts. 

I.  Musical  Education 

1.  Voice — early  indications  of  musical  ability 

a.  Public  school  instruction 

b.  Private  lessons 
Number  of  hours  of  lessons 
Number  of  hours  of  practice 
Number  of  hours  of  playing 

c.  Glee  clubs 

2.  Piano — private  lessons  in  the  home 

Number  of  hours  of  lessons,  practice  and  playing 
Playing  for  orchestra 
Playing  for  glee  clubs 
Appearance  in  recitals 

II.  Environment 

I.  Family — Particulars  about  musical  interests  of  each  member 
How  much  family  music? 

Does  family  encourage  or  discourage  music? 

2.  Community — Encouragement  in  musical  interest  by  individuals  out¬ 
side  of  the  family. 

Opportunity  to  belong  to  chorus  or  orchestra. 

III.  Character  of  performance 

What  do  you  play  now? 

Programs  of  concerts,  if  possible 
What  do  you  sing  now? 

How  much  practice  now? 

IV.  Dominant  interests  and  ambitions 

What  do  you  like  best  now? 

What  do  you  like  best  to  play  or  sing? 

What  would  you  like  to  do  with  music? 

V.  Emotional  reaction 

What  kind  of  music  do  you  like  best  to  hear? 

How  does  music  affect  you? 

VI.  Creative  imagination 

a.  Spontaneous  unstimulated  making  of  melodies  or  harmonies 

b.  Ability  to  compare  melodies  and  arrange  music  harmonically  for 
classes 

c.  Extemporizing  on  the  piano  or  organ  or  any  other  instrument 


136 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


Teacher's  rating 

The  questionnaire  for  the  teachers  was  also  gone  through 
personally  with  each  teacher  with  a  few  exceptions  thus  secur¬ 
ing  a  good  understanding.  The  estimate  of  each  teacher  on  his 
student’s  ranking  was  interesting.  Each  one  showed  an  interest 
in  the  evaluation  of  his  pupils  and  a  cooperation  which  made 
this  part  of  the  examination  very  easy.  This  questionnaire  read 
as  follows : 

Kindly  rank  all  of  your  pupils  into  five  groups  on  the  basis  of  the  five 


following  points : 

A.  The  highest  ten  per  cent .  91-100 

B.  The  next  twenty  per  cent .  71-  90 

C.  The  average  forty  per  cent .  31-70 

D.  The  low  twenty  per  cent  .  11-  30 

E.  The  lowest  ten  per  cent  .  1-  10 


Suppose  that  you  have  thirty  students  and  that  you  are  ranking  them  on 
Application.  Take  the  three  who  are  best  in  Application  and  give  each  a 
grade  shown  by  A.  Take  the  three  poorest  and  give  each  a  grade  shown 
by  E.  Then  take  the  six  who  are  the  next  best  to  the  A’s  and  give  them 
each  a  grade  of  B,  and  the  six  who  are  just  better  than  the  E’s  and  give 
them  a  grade  of  D.  The  twelve  who  are  left  will  be  the  average  ones  who 
should  receive  the  grade  C.  Let  me  know  your  estimates  of  the  pupils 
whose  names  I  give  you.  Please  follow  the  above  described  procedure  in 
giving  the  students  grades  on  the  following  six  points.  In  this  ranking 
each  point  must  be  considered  separately.  Make  the  ranking  for  Applica¬ 
tion  and  then  begin  all  over  again  and  make  the  ranking  for  Achievement, 
etc. : 

1.  Application.  How  does  the  student  rank  as  to  being  conscientious  about 
practice  and  preparation? 

2.  Achievement.  What  is  the  ratio  of  the  student’s  proficiency  to  his 
opportunity? 

3.  Ambition.  Is  the  student  eager  to  excel  and  does  she  work  to  excel? 

4.  Ability  to  read  music. 

5.  Ability  to  memorize  music. 

6.  Quality  of  voice. 

Please  make  descriptive  comments  without  ranking  on  the  following  points : 

1.  Estimate  of  comparative  preparation  when  the  pupils  came  to  you. 

2.  Strong  and  weak  points  of  the  student.  Among  other  things,  speed 
and  accuracy  learning. 

3.  Dominant  interests. 

4.  Character  of  performance.  Appeal  to  hearers  by  technique  or  tone? 
Does  she  have  a  good  stage  presence? 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


1 37 


5.  Emotional  reaction  to  music. 

6.  Range  of  voice. 

Kindly  supplement  each  of  the  above  points  by  any  comment  of  the  in¬ 
dividual  which  seems  interesting  or  enlightening. 

The  following  are  detailed  analyses  of  the  measurements  of 
two  of  the  music  students  whose  talent  charts  are  shown  in 
Fig,  1: 

Case  A. 

Musical  History  of  the  Family:  The  family  on  A’s  father’s 
side  was  musical.  Her  father  sang  very  well  and  loved  to  sing. 
When  a  boy  he  played  the  violin  well.  His  family  had  more 
than  the  ordinary  amount  of  music  in  the  home.  He  died  when 
A  was  ten  years  old.  An  aunt,  the  sister  of  A’s  father,  played 
the  piano  exceptionally  well.  A’s  mother  is  not  musical.  She 
loves  to  sing  but  cannot  carry  a  tune  if  some  one  else  sings  alto. 
A’s  grandmother  on  her  mother’s  side,  however,  still  plays  the 
piano  occasionally  although  she  is  seventy-six  years  old.  The 
grandfather  on  this  side  disliked  music  so  intensely  that  A  could 
not  satisfy  her  desire  to  play  the  beautiful  piano  at  his  home. 

Personal  Musical  History:  When  A  was  a  little  child  she 
loved  to  hear  music  and  would  beg  people  to  play  for  her  when¬ 
ever  she  entered  a  house  where  there  was  a  piano.  She  did  not, 
however,  sing  very  much  at  that  time.  At  the  age  of  ten  she 
began  to  study  the  piano  with  a  rather  inferior  teacher  whom 
she  liked  very  much.  She  studied  with  this  teacher  for  two 
and  a  half  years  acquiring  some  knowledge  of  music  and  some 
undesirable  musical  habits  connected  therewith.  She  then  studied 
with  another  teacher  until  she  entered  the  University.  This 
teacher  was  really  musical  and  a  thorough  teacher  in  some  ways 
although  he  attempted  to  force  her  too  rapidly.  She  could  not 
do  the  things  he  wanted  her  to  do. 

During  her  second  year  in  high  school  A  took  nine  months 
of  singing  lessons.  She  sang  in  the  High  School  glee  club  for 
four  years,  and  in  the  school  operettas,  taking  part,  indeed,  in 
all  its  musical  activities. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  her  piano  lessons  A  attracted  the 
favorable  attention  of  a  music  supervisor  who  encouraged  her 


133 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


parents  to  give  her  special  musical  advantages.  Her  second 
piano  teacher  also  encouraged  her  and  thought  of  her  as  one  of 
his  very  best  and  most  promising  pupils.  In  spite  of  this  fact 
she  has  had  fewer  lessons  than  the  usual  girl  who  enters  the 
conservatory.  It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  however  that 
this  is  more  than  the  average  in  an  unselected  group.  She  has 
also  fewer  than  the  average  number  of  hours  of  practice  and 
playing  to  her  credit.  She  is  now  twenty-one  years  old.  She 
has  played  in  church  and  Sunday  school  for  many  years  but  has 
never  played  accompaniments  either  for  glee  clubs  or  for  singers. 

Musical  Sensitivity:  A’s  acuity  of  hearing  is  slightly  above 
the  average.  In  the  other  simple  forms  of  sensory  impressions 
she  is  most  excellent;  her  rank  in  pitch,  intensity,  and  time  dis¬ 
crimination  is  very  high.  This  means  that  she  can  hear  very 
small  differences  in  the  pitch  of  tones,  in  the  comparative  loud¬ 
ness  of  tone,  and  in  the  duration  of  tones.  As  far  as  the  recog¬ 
nition  of  small  differences  in  pitch,  intensity,  and  time  are  con¬ 
cerned,  A  has  the  highest  kind  of  capacity.  In  the  more  com¬ 
plex  forms  of  appreciation  she  is  somewhat  variable.  Her 
judgment  of  consonance  is  very  high  and  indicates  that  she  has  a 
feeling  for  harmonic  values.  In  ear  training  classes,  however, 
she  obtains  only  average  grades,  probably  due  to  her  average 
intelligence.  Her  perception  of  rhythm,  shown  in  her  rhythmic 
action,  is  average.  Her  sense  of  extensity,  sense  of  timbre,  and 
sense  of  volume,  dependent  as  they  are  upon  pitch  and  inten¬ 
sity,  are  doubtless  very  keen. 

Musical  Action:  In  the  simple  reaction  test  she  is  average, 
which  means  that  she  can  make  the  proper  motion  in  response 
to  a  sound  with  average  quickness.  But  her  reaction  when  she 
has  to  make  a  choice  of  two  sounds  is  below  the  average.  This 
rating  may  not  be  fair  to  her  for  in  auditory  serial  action,  where 
a  choice  has  to  be  made  between  four  sounds,  with  the  proper 
response  for  each,  we  found  her  to  be  average.  In  visual  serial 
action,  which  is  an  index  of  the  power  to  respond  to  a  visual 
symbol,  she  is  inferior.  Both  auditory  and  visual  serial  action 
will  be  discussed  again  under  learning.  A’s  general  motor  relia¬ 
bility  is  slightly  below  average.  This  means  that  she  can  act 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


139 


fairly  accurately  and  without  much  variation  in  the  reliability 
of  her  motions. 

In  the  motor  control  of  her  voice  A  is  better  than  in  that  of 
her  hand.  Her  rank  in  each  of  the  three  tests  which  indicate 
this  fact  is  of  the  very  highest  kind.  Accordingly  we  should  ex¬ 
pect  her  to  sing  very  accurately  and  to  control  her  voice  in  very 
small  differences  of  pitch,  which  she  does.  This  correlates  well 
with  her  keen  sense  of  pitch.  The  range  of  her  voice  is  average 
and  the  quality  average.  Her  control  of  time  and  rhythm  is  aver¬ 
age  on  the  whole.  Her  timed  action  and  her  rhythmic  action  are 
slightly  above  the  median,  but  in  free  action  she  is  inferior. 

We  find  that  there  is  very  little  connection  between  the  sense 
of  time  and  free  action.  Free  action  is  more  dependent  upon 
motor  response  than  upon  auditory  perception  of  time  relation¬ 
ship.  In  timed  action  and  in  rhythmic  action  A  is  better  than  in 
free  action.  This  is  entirely  consistent  since  there  is  more  re¬ 
lationship  between  time  sense  and  rhythmic  action  than  between 
time  sense  and  free  action,  and  still  more  between  time  sense 
and  timed  action.  The  comparatively  low  ranks  which  A  obtains 
in  all  of  these  tests  are  consistent  also  and  denote  A’s  low  power 
of  motor  response.  Since  her  timed  and  rhythmic  action  are 
average  she  will  be  able  to  play  music  with  average  accuracy  in 
time  and  tempo.  Rhythm  will  not,  however,  be  a  conspicuously 
marked  characteristic  of  her  playing. 

A’s  grip  shows  the  physical  strength  necessary  for  a  pianist. 
Her  rank  in  precision  is  better  than  that  of  her  other  motor  and 
reaction  tests.  It  may  be  possible  that  she  should  have  done 
better  in  all  of  these  motor  tests.  She  had  been  ill  for  two  weeks. 
But  even  supposing  these  ranks  to  be  too  low,  they  are  probably 
correct  in  so  far  as  they  serve  to  indicate  that  A  is  comparatively 
slow  in  her  motor  coordination. 

Musical  Memory  and  Imagination:  In  auditory  memory  A  is 
of  very  high  rank.  Her  auditory  imagery  seems  rather  low 
when  compared  with  the  other  kinds  of  imagery.  She  possibly 
should  have  rated  herself  higher  in  view  of  her  exceeding  keen¬ 
ness  in  pitch,  time  and  intensity.4 

4  The  imagery  tests  were  given  to  the  group  of  music  students  according 


140 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


A’s  visual  imagery  is  of  high  rank,  although  her  sight  reading 
on  the  piano  is  average.  She  has  the  visual  image  of  the  notes, 
perhaps,  or  of  the  motions  which  she  is  about  to  make,  but 
cannot  put  it  into  action.  Her  sight  singing  is  superior.  This  is 
the  result  of  her  superior  motor  ability  in  pitch  singing.  The 
difference  between  her  sight  reading  on  the  piano  and  that  in 
singing  is  the  very  difference  which  exists  in  the  motor  ability 
of  her  arms  and  hands  and  that  of  her  vocal  cords. 

A  does  not  compose  melodies  spontaneously.  Sometimes 
when  she  is  at  the  piano  she  makes  up  a  tune  and  tries  to  see 
how  she  can  harmonize  it,  but  not  very  often.  She  finds  it  easy 
to  make  up  melodies  for  her  harmony  and  composition.  She 
seems  to  be  normally  inventive  in  musical  composition  but  not 
essentially  of  the  creative  type  of  mind  musically. 

A’s  immediate  memory  for  tone  is  very  good;  she  can  re- 

to  the  procedure  of  Agnew,  with  the  important  difference  that  the  Iowa 
students  worked  out  their  imagery  ranks  by  themselves  after  general  in¬ 
structions  given  to  the  class  as  a  whole  (i).  There  was  no  opportunity  for 
each  student  to  consult  with  the  instructor  about  the  ranking.  With  the 
music  students,  however,  each  individual  student  was  given  a  thorough 
training  in  the  comparison  of  images  and  the  corresponding  sensation  in  the 
visual  and  motor  fields.  She  'had  a  chance  then  to  discuss  each  image  as  it 
came  up  and  before  she  graded  it.  Emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  com¬ 
parison  between  images  and  sensations,  with  the  result  that  the  observers 
universally  graded  themselves  lower  than  if  they  had  not  had  this  pre¬ 
liminary  training. 

One  of  the  points  about  the  imagery  test  which  makes  it  hard  to  deal  with 
is  that  the  one  who  ranks  himself  with  judgment  and  discrimination  is 
given  a  lower  grade  than  one  who  gives  himself  a  blanket  high  grade  with¬ 
out  any  variation.  The  only  comprehensive  tables  of  rank  with  which  one 
can  compare  the  imagery  grades  of  the  music  students  are  those  of  Agnew, 
which  did  not  give  the  training  and  caution  about  the  difference  between 
an  image  and  a  sensation  which  the  Evanston  test  did.  The  Evanston  ranks 
on  imagery  do  not,  therefore,  truly  represent  the  standing  which  the  music 
students  should  have  in  an  unselected  group. 

For  qualitative  analysis  of  mental  processes,  however,  the  imagery  tests 
are  invaluable.  There  are  no  other  measurements  which  are  referred  to 
more  often  when  considering  the  bearing  of  one  test  upon  another.  The 
comparative  rank  which  the  students  gave  themselves  in  the  three  types  of 
imagery  was  helpful  and  enlightening.  It  is  an  unsatisfactory  test  to  use  in 
a  quantitative  way  but  extremely  useful  in  the  analysis  of  the  one  whose 
musical  talent  is  being  measured. 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL  141 

member  a  series  of  tones  by  their  sound  alone  better  than  most 
people.  This  correlates  well  with  her  rank  in  auditory  imagery. 
She  is  average  in  actually  memorizing  her  musical  selections. 
Memory  is  a  very  complex  process  in  all  of  its  associate  factors. 
The  reason  A  is  not  so  superior  in  the  process  of  memorizing 
music  that  she  plays  and  sings  is  undoubtedly  to  be  found  in 
the  slowness  of  her  motor  coordination.  Her  superior  auditory 
learning  is  probably  correlated  with  the  keenness  of  her  ear. 
Her  learning  by  means  of  vision  is  better  than  average  and  will 
help  out  her  auditory  learning. 

Musical  Intellect:  In  her  intelligence  quotient,  which  is  101, 
A  is  average  (12).  She  will  therefore  enter  into  the  intel¬ 
lectual  pursuit  of  music  just  as  the  average  adult  would.  This 
may  account  for  her  average  rank  in  ear  training  into  which, 
as  it  is  taught,  the  intellectual  comprehension  enters  much  more 
than  the  sensory  impression. 

Musical  Feeling:  A  has  an  extreme  sensitiveness  to  music 
as  heard.  Her  early  desire  to  hear  music  is  based  upon  this 
sensitiveness.  She  would  rather  listen  to  music  than  play  it  her¬ 
self,  which  is  a  conspicuous  fact  in  connection  with  her  measure¬ 
ments;  for  A’s  music  is  not  a  medium  for  self-expression  but 
rather  a  purely  sensory  means  of  impression.  She  can  hear  the 
music  better  than  she  can  produce  it  and  early  recognized  this 
fact.  When  she  does  play  she  wants  to  play  whatever  “people 
like."  She  does  not  feel  that  she  has  something  which  she  must 
play  to  them.  But  she  is  aroused  emotionally  by  the  sheer  sound 
of  music. 

Her  aim  and  ambition  is  to  be  a  public  school  music  teacher, 
or,  perhaps,  a  piano  teacher.  She  has  no  desire  to  become  a 
concert  player  and  has  studied  music  because  of  her  interest  in 
appreciation,  not  because  of  her  power  to  perform  it.  She  has 
no  insistent  urge  to  express  herself  in  music,  nor  does  she  feel 
driven  to  work  out  a  musical  career  through  her  playing. 

She  is  distinctly  superior  in  application  and  wants  to  do  what¬ 
ever  she  undertakes  in  a  thorough  and  conscientious  manner. 
Superior  sensitivity  added  to  slow  motor  ability  and  average 
intelligence  are  the  factors  which  will  probably  work  together 


142 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


to  make  A  of  average  ability  in  her  own  achievement  in  music. 
Her  superior  power  of  application  and  a  conscientious  desire  to 
do  any  task  well,  a  pleasing  personality  and  a  beautiful  speaking 
voice  added  to  a  remarkable  appreciation  of  the  aesthetics  of 
music  will  enable  her  to  succeed  as  a  teacher. 

Case  B. 

Musical  History  of  the  Family:  B  belongs  to  a  family 
which  has  been  musical  on  both  sides  for  at  least  three  gener¬ 
ations.  The  ancestors  on  the  mother’s  side  as  well  as  on  the 
father’s  side  had  music  and  musical  instruments  before  any 
one  else  in  their  community.  B’s  father  played  on  the  organ 
before  his  feet  could  reach  the  pedals.  Later  he  sang  tenor  in 
oratorio  and  at  Chautauquas.  He  became  an  educator  and  made 
a  special  point  of  developing  the  music  in  his  school,  having, 
for  instance,  a  brass  band  among  his  pupils  when  he  was  prin¬ 
cipal  of  a  school  in  Chicago.  B’s  mother  sang  and  played  a 
great  deal  in  her  youth,  and  her  three  sisters  are  all  musical 
and  succeed  well  in  their  musical  studies.  The  two  older  sisters 
sing,  being  endowed  with  rather  unusual  voices,  and  they  play 
the  piano  acceptably. 

Personal  Musical  History:  When  B  was  only  a  year  old  her 
mother  recorded  in  a  diary  that  she  could  hum  “America,’” 
“Annie  Rooney,’’  “Go  Tell  Aunt  Nancy,”  and  “At  the  Cross.” 
When  she  was  four  years  old  she  sang  a  song  alone  at  a  Christ¬ 
mas  tree,  and  when  she  was  five  years  old  her  mother  recorded : 
“She  cannot  let  the  piano  alone,”  and  “she  picks  out  tunes  and 
chords  played  by  her  older  sister.”  When  she  was  five  years 
old  she  began  piano  lessons  which  have  continued  with  slight 
interruptions  to  the  present  time. 

B  has  played  accompaniments  for  her  father  and  sisters  in 
Schubert,  Schumann,  and  Mendelssohn,  has  played  in  church 
and  Sunday  school  a  great  deal,  and  has  done  accompanying  in 
public  concerts.  She  has  played  the  alto  horn  for  her  father  in 
his  brass  band,  and  she  has  organized  an  orchestra  which  per¬ 
formed  the  incidental  music  for  two  college  plays.  She  wrote 
the  class  song  when  graduating  from  the  grammar  grade  and 
also  when  graduating  from  high  school. 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


143 


Although  B  has  never  had  any  singing  lessons  she  has  a  voice 
which  is  above  the  average  in  quality  and  range,  and  she  has 
often  sung  in  choruses. 

When  B  was  about  to  graduate  from  college  she  decided  that 
she  would  like  a  certificate  from  the  music  course  also.  Her 
instructor  informed  her  that  this  would  be  granted  on  the  con¬ 
dition  that  she  would  present  the  proper  program.  She  applied 
herself  to  the  task  memorizing  in  one  term  a  program  of  com¬ 
positions  of  the  virtuoso  class.  She  is  now  twenty-four  years 
old. 

Musical  Sensitivity:  B’s  acuity  of  hearing  is  average,  as  is 
also  her  sense  of  pitch.  It  may  be  that  the  latter  measurement 
is  cognitive  rather  than  physiological,  since  it  was  the  result  of 
the  first  test  given  to  the  group  and  when  B  was  not  in  the  best 
physical  condition.  Accepting  it  as  approximately  correct,  how¬ 
ever,  we  may  conclude  that  her  hearing  of  pitch  differences 
is  keen  enough  to  become  a  good  working  basis  for  the  enjoy¬ 
ment  and  reproduction  of  tone  in  music. 

B’s  sense  of  intensity  is  very  keen,  which  accords  well  with  her 
ability  to  play  the  piano  with  expression.  The  extreme  sensi¬ 
tiveness  to  intensity  is  one  of  the  conspicuous  facts  about  B’s 
sensory  capacity  and  a  strength  upon  which  much  of  her  ability 
rests.  It  probably  compensates  for  any  lack  in  her  sense  of  pitch 
and  may  be  the  basis  for  a  peculiarly  effective  kind  of  apprecia¬ 
tion  and  reproduction  of  musical  tone.  Intensity  is  also  “a  clear 
cut  test  of  the  intellectual  capacity  for  accuracy  in  the  observa¬ 
tion  of  sound”  (7,  p.  84). 

In  the  sense  of  time  B  is  average  and  therefore  reasonably 
endowed  for  development  in  her  chosen  field  of  music.  Her 
sense  of  rhythm  is  high  as  shown  by  her  rank  in  rhythmic  and 
timed  action.  It  is  also  conspicuous  in  the  serial  action  tests 
where  she  was  one  of  the  steady  reactors.  Her  sense  of  con¬ 
sonance  is  above  average.  She  has  a  high  rank  in  the  ear  train¬ 
ing  classes  and  possesses  that  clearly  defined  feeling  for  har¬ 
monic  values  which  is  essential  for  artistic  performance  on  the 
piano  and  for  appreciation  of  the  complicated  music  of  the 


144 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


orchestra.  In  the  light  of  this  high  rank  in  intensity  and 
auditory  imagery,  we  know  that  B’s  sense  of  timbre  is  above 
average,  and  her  delight  in  orchestra  music  shows  that  she  has 
a  keen  recognition  of  the  intensity  and  volume  of  tone. 

Musical  Action:  B’s  records  in  simple  and  complex  reaction 
indicate  her  ability  to  make  motor  responses  to  sound.  She  is 
superior  both  in  the  ability  to  respond  to  a  simple  stimulus  and 
in  the  ability  to  make  a  choice  between  two  sounds  and  respond 
with  the  appropriate  action.  Every  measurement  of  motor  re¬ 
sponse  indicates  that  B  can  act  more  quickly  and  intelligently  in 
response  to  sound  than  the  average  person  can.  She  is  inferior 
in  her  reaction  to  the  complicated  auditory  stimuli  used  in  this 
test,  and  is,  therefore,  slow  in  establishing  such  an  auditory- 
motor  combination.  Her  visual  serial  action  is  superior  both 
in  time  and  accuracy.  This  indicates  that  she  can  read  the  notes 

of  a  page  of  music  and  make  the  proper  motions  at  sight  of  the 

% 

new  combinations  of  notes  with  rapidity  and  facility. 

The  tests  which  indicate  control  of  pitch  are  those  of  singing 
key,  singing  interval,  and  voice  control.  Her  error  in  the  re¬ 
production  of  a  keynote  is  .25  v.  d.,  which  gives  her  a  very 
superior  rank.  In  singing  intervals  we  find  that  she  makes  an 
average  error  of  1.7  v.  d.,  which  is  very  good  and  speaks  well 
for.  her  fidelity  in  tonal  memory. ' 

The  fact  that  the  range  and  quality  of  B’s  voice  are  good, 
added  to  the  ability  to  sing  accurately,  means  that  had  she  so 
chosen  she  might  have  expressed  her  music  quite  as  satisfac¬ 
torily  by  means  of  her  voice  as  with  the  piano. 

The  measurements  which  show  the  control  of  time  are  those 
of  free  action  and  timed  action.  B’s  rank  in  the  former  is 
higher  than  the  average,  and  in  the  latter  is  very  superior.  Her 
rank  in  free  action  correlates  well  with  that  in  time  Sense  and 
is  what  might  be  expected;  for,  as  Seashore  says,  “free  action 
is  the  motor  aspect  of  which  time  sense  is  the  sensory  or  cen¬ 
tral”  (7,  p.  62). 

B’s  superior  timed  action  is  probably  indicative  of  her  superior 
intellectual  capacity  and  of  her  training  in  music.  She  is  able 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


145 


to  concentrate  her  attention  upon  the  outside  stimulus  and  con¬ 
trol  her  responses  to  it  in  a  very  superior  manner.  Her  rank 
in  these  simple  types  of  controlled  action  show  that  her  music 
will  be  correct  and  accurate  in  tempo  and  the  time  elements  of 
her  playing  will  be  well  marked. 

B’s  rank  in  rhythmic  action  is  above  the  average.  Rhythmic 
action  differs  from  timed  action  in  that  the  stimulus  is  not  ob¬ 
jectively  set.  B’s  rhythmic  action  is  conspicuously  like  her  free 
action;  in  both  of  them  she  has  about  the  same  rank.  It  is 
interesting  and  important  to  note  that  in  free  action  and  in 
rhythmic  action,  which  are  B’s  subjective  responses  to  rhythm, 
she  is  average.  The  same  is  true  of  her  rank  in  pitch.  Yet  in 
timed  action,  the  response  to  an  outside  stimulus,  and  in  singing 
pitch,  also  the  reproduction  of  an  objective  stimulus  she  is  con¬ 
spicuously  superior.  These  point  out  the  extremely  economical 
use  which  B  makes  of  all  the  capacity  with  which  she  is  en¬ 
dowed. 

B’s  rank  in  grip  is  an  index  of  her  general  bodily  strength. 
She  has  the  physical  endurance  necessary  for  the  practice  and 
playing  involved  in  the  study  of  any  musical  instrument.  She 
shows  a  nervousness  in  the  precision  test,  however,  which  gives 
her  a  low  percentile  rank  and  would  seem  to  indicate  that  she 
should  not  force  herself  too  much  in  strenuous  practice  and  per¬ 
formance. 

Musical  Memory  and  Imagination:  B’s  rank  in  auditory 
imagery  is  above  the  average.  She  has  the  power  to  image  tone 
and  therefore  to  image  a  complicated  series  of  tones  in  a  musical 
composition.  If  she  can  imagine  the  music  which  she  wishes 
to  play — its  pitch,  its  time,  its  intensity,  and  its  timbre — and 
can  reproduce  the  effects  which  she  hears  in  her  imagination,  she 
has  one  of  the  most  important  qualifications  of  a  musician.  All 
of  her  comments  on  music,  the  manner  in  which  she  plays,  her 
power  to  imagine  the  timbre  of  the  various  musical  instruments, 
are  evidence  that  her  auditory  imagery  is  good.  Auditory  im¬ 
agery  is  also  one  of  the  factors  in  the  accuracy  of  singing  in¬ 
tervals,  and  is  probably  partly  responsible  for  B’s  high  rank  in 
the  three  tests  for  accuracy  in  singing. 


146 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


Her  motor  imagery  is  superior.  This  good  motor  control 
would  also  indicate  the  same  degree  of  motor  imagery.  Her 
motor  imagery  enters  into  her  ability  to  play  accurately  and 
to  express  the  musical  ideas  which  she  perceives  through  her 
imagination. 

B's  creative  imagination  is  shown  in  her  early  compositions  and 
in  her  rank  in  composition  classes.  Although  she  has  some  in¬ 
dication  of  creative  imagination  and  an  inventive  mind  her 
interest  has  not  seemed  to  arouse  in  her  any  particular  desire 
to  express  herself  in  this  way.  It  is  evident  that  the  pleasure 
which  she  finds  in  reproducing  the  music  of  others  so  absorbs 
her  that  she  is  not  concerned  with  developing  her  own  musical 
ideas.  She  does  over  other  people's  compositions  very  well  but 
is  not  self-expressive  enough  to  wish  to  concentrate  on  pro¬ 
ducing  that  which  is  original.  Yet  she  has  more  than  the  aver¬ 
age  possibilities  on  the  creative  side  of  music. 

B  is  superior  in  visual  learning;  she  has  superior  learning 
power  in  response  to  a  visual  stimulus.  For  her  musical  use 
this  means  that  she  can  read  the  notes  of  a  page  of  music  and 
make  the  proper  motions  at  the  sight  of  the  notes  with  rapidity 
and  precision.  She  is  also  unusually  accurate  in  her  sight  play¬ 
ing  She  learns  from  the  sight  of  the  printed  notes,  however, 
less  rapidly  than  from  the  sound  of  them. 

Her  rank  in  auditory  memory  is  very  high.  This  correlates 
with  her  learning  power  in  response  to  an  auditory  stimulus 
and  with  her  rank  in  all  sorts  of  motor  response  to  tone;  namely, 
accuracy  of  singing,  simple  and  complex  reaction  to  sound,  and 
with  her  rank  in  auditory  and  motor  imagery.  All  of  these 
measurements  indicate  what  she  has  shown  to  be  true  about 
her  playing,  that  she  has  unusual  ability  to  memorize  long  and 
involved  musical  compositions. 

Musical  Intellect:  B's  intelligence  quotient  is  113,  which  is 
high.  She  graduated  from  college  with  honors.  She  is  of  the 
intellectual  type  musically  and  finds  pleasure  in  the  analysis  of 
the  form  and  structure  of  music.  She  likes  to  teach  and  has 
been  given  a  class  of  freshman  girls  in  the  conservatory  whom 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


147 


she  drills  in  scales  and  triads.  She  is  very  superior  both  in  her 
ear  training  and  in  sight  singing  classes.  Temperamentally  she 
is  intellectual  and  approaches  music  from  this  angle. 

Musical  Feeling:  B  likes  absolute  music.  She  does  not  need 
a  program  of  the  story  of  an  opera  to  make  her  appreciation  of 
the  music  itself  keener.  In  fact  she  prefers  the  music  which 
does  not  have  any  such  distractions.  She  prefers  symphony 
orchestra  music  to  any  other  “because  it  is  a  combination  of  so 
many  delightful  tones."  She  would  “rather  go  to  a  symphony 
orchestra  concert  than  to  opera."  She  enjoys  thinking  about  the 
structure  of  music  but  believes  that  this  does  not  detract  from 
her  sensuous  enjoyment  of  it  at  the  same  time.  B  really  loves 
her  music  and  says  she  would  keep  on  with  it  no  matter  how 
much  the  tests  might  go  against  her.  She  would  like  to  be  a 
concert  pianist  or  accompanist  but  has  not  yet  decided  defin¬ 
itely  what  she  will  do. 

With  her  keen  imaginative  and  intellectual  comprehension  of 
music  B  does  not  lack  the  emotional  element  in  her  playing;  on 
the  contrary  she  plays  with  warmth  and  expression.  She  has  a 
legitimate  ambition  to  conquer  the  difficulties  of  rendering  ar¬ 
tistically  and  intelligently  the  music  which  appeals  to  her,  and 
on  account  of  her  peculiar  balance  of  sensory  and  motor  ca¬ 
pacities  is  able  to  realize  her  own  ideal  to  a  great  extent. 

She  is  an  attractive  looking  girl,  older  than  most  of  the  stu¬ 
dents  in  the  conservatory  because  she  completed  her  college 
course  before  finishing  her  music  studies.  She  is  quiet  and 
reserved  and  of  the  type  to  express  her  emotions  freely  in  her 
music  although  she  would  not  do  so  in  ordinary  conversation. 
She  is  well  poised  and  self-reliant  and  is  cordial  and  pleasant  to 
meet.  She  is  eager  to  understand  the  underlying  basis  of  these 
tests  and  is  interested  in  everything  that  has  any  bearing  on 
music. 

General  tendencies  of  capacities  in  music  students 

It  was  not  deemed  advisable  to  present  the  analysis  of  the 
twenty-six  cases  in  detail  because  there  is  necessarily  much  re¬ 
petition.  The  two  cases  here  presented  give  the  reader  an  idea 


148 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


of  the  manner  of  analysis  which  seems  to  be  serviceable  when 
the  measurements  of  any  individual  are  to  be  used  for  diagnosis. 
In  the  following*  paragraphs  there  is  a  summary  of  the  results 
of  the  tests  which  were  given  together  with  a  grouping  of  the 
students,  not  only  in  view  of  these  results,  but  also  according  to 
the  achievement  of  the  potential  musicians : 

In  acuity  of  hearing  only  two  are  below  average,  and  these 
two  are  above  average  in  the  four  other  sensory  tests  and 
memory.  In  the  sense  of  pitch,  the  sense  of  time,  and  the  sense 
of  intensity  none  are  below  average.  In  the  sense  of  conson¬ 
ance  one  is  below  average,  and  she  is  not  below  average  in  the 
other  sensory  measurements  and  memory.  Judging  from  the 
records  of  these  twenty-six  students,  no  one  who  is  not  on  the 
whole  average  in  the  ability  to  hear  tones  and  to  discriminate 
the  pitch,  the  intensity  and  the  time  of  tones,  with  the  resultant 
ability  to  remember  tones,  ordinarily  gets  so  far  in  her  musical 
studies  as  to  enter  a  music  school.  Those  who  are  below 
average  in  their  sensory  acuteness  are  weeded  out  before  this 
stage  is  reached.  The  records  seem  to  indicate  that  such  ca¬ 
pacity  should  be  above  average  in  at  least  two  or  three  of  these 
elements  in  those  who  desire  to  make  music  their  profession. 

The  next  group  of  tests,  those  of  motor  ability  and  power 
of  motor  coordination  brings  out  another  fact.  Here  the  music 
students  begin  to  differ  from  one  another.  In  simple  reaction 
seventeen  are  average  or  above  and  eight  are  below  average. 
In  complex  reaction  twenty  are  average  or  above  and  five  are 
below,  and  in  motor  reliability  nineteen  are  average  or  above 
and  twelve  are  below.  In  auditory  serial  action  nineteen  are 
average  or  above  and  seven  are  below.  In  visual  serial  action 
seventeen  are  average  or  above  and  nine  are  below.  In  general, 
the  music  students  vary  in  the  speed  of  their  actions  as  a  larger 
normal  group  would :  their  music  probably  takes  on  the  charac¬ 
teristics  of  the  personal  equation  in  each  type  of  action. 

There  is  a  striking  uniformity  in  the  rhythmic  ability  of  the 
music  students.  In  free  action  twenty-one  are  average  or  above 
and  four  are  below.  In  timed  action  all  are  average  or  above. 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


149 


In  rhythmic  action  twenty-five  are  above  average  and  one  be¬ 
low.  In  precision  of  action  in  which  the  ability  to  perform  in 
rhythm  is  a  factor,  twenty-five  have  a  rank  average  or  above 
and  one  a  rank  below.  In  no  case  is  an  individual  below  aver¬ 
age  in  more  than  one  of  the  measurements.  Ability  to  perform 
in  time  and  rhythm  seems  to  be  almost  as  necessary  a  qualifica¬ 
tion  for  a  music  student  as  ability  to  hear  tones  with  keen  dis¬ 
crimination. 

The  measurements  of  grip  vary  as  they  naturally  would  in  a 
group  which  is  not  chosen  on  the  basis  of  physical  vitality. 
Twenty-five  are  average  or  above  in  this  test  and  one  is  below. 

Another  group  of  tests  in  which  the  music  students  are  con¬ 
spicuously  uniform  is  that  of  accuracy  of  singing.  In  singing 
the  key-note  all  but  two  are  average  or  above,  and  in  singing 
the  interval  and  in  control  of  voice  the  same  is  true.  In  the  two 
latter  tests  training  is  a  large  factor,  and  training  the  conser¬ 
vatory  students  all  get  whether  they  have  voices  or  not. 

In  auditory  imagery  twenty  graded  themselves  average  or 
above.  In  intelligence  all  are  again  average  or  above,  being  in 
large  part  a  selected  group. 

The  general  conclusions  about  the  various  groups  of  tests 
may  be  summarized  in  this  way: 

There  are  certain  measurements  in  which  the  music  students 
as  a  selected  group  are  of  rather  uniformly  high  rank.  These 
are:  (1)  the  factors  of  musical  sensitivity  and  tonal  memory; 
(2)  ability  to  play  in  accurately  marked  time;  (3)  accuracy  of 
pitch  singing;  and  (4)  intelligence. 

There  are  other  measurements  in  which  they  differ;  namely, 
(1)  in  the  factors  of  musical  action,  some  being  quick  and 
accurate,  some  being  slow  and  accurate,  some  being  quick  and 
inaccurate,  and  some  being  slow  and  inaccurate;  (2)  in  the 
types  of  their  imagery,  and  therefore  in  the  manner  in  which 
they  approach,  memorize  and  learn  music. 

The  relative  proportions  of  these  various  factors  may  be 
assembled  in  an  infinite  number  of  ways  in  the  different  in¬ 
dividuals,  each  of  whom  has  some  characteristic  adjustment  in 
which  every  other  one  is  lacking.  As  Donaldson  says .  On 


150 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


the  balance  of  these  component  parts  depends  the  somewhat 
subtle  character  called  temperament,  which,  though  illusive,  has 
a  real  existence  and  an  importance  hard  to  estimate.  Tem¬ 
perament  is  the  expression  of  these  relations  and  one  of  the  nice 
problems  the  clinician  has  to  face"  (3,  p.  316).  Each  in¬ 
dividual  should  be  studied  as  an  individual  and  his  strength 
and  weakness  discovered.  These  then  become  his  known  capital 
and  he  can  proceed  with  the  assurance  of  one  who  knows  what 
is  behind  him. 

Brief  mention  of  individual  cases 

Turning  now  to  a  reconsideration  of  the  typical  results: 
These  music  students  seem  to  be  divided  into  four  groups  on 
the  basis  of  their  total  scores  in  the  measurements.  The  first 
group,  which  we  shall  call  Group  I,  is  made  up  of  those  who  are 
high  in  all  of  the  measurements.  They  give  a  comparatively 
simple  answer  to  the  question  as  to  whether  those  who  are 
superior  in  sensory  capacity,  motor  capacity,  voice,  imagery, 
learning  and  intelligence,  are  also  superior  in  achievement;  for 
the  answer  in  each  case  is,  undoubtedly,  affirmative.  The  eight 
who  compose  this  group  on  the  whole  have  the  best  record  of 
achievement  among  those  who  were  tested. 

Five  of  Group  I  are  exceptionally  good  pianists.  The  first 
of  this  group  has,  however,  even  more  promise  of  success  as  a 
singer  than  as  a  pianist.  She  has  the  most  conspicuously  su¬ 
perior  talent  chart  of  all  and  is  a  composer  and  organist  as  well 
as  a  pianist  and  a  singer.  The  second  is  also  superior  in  achieve¬ 
ment  as  a  singer  and  as  a  pianist,  even  now  in  her  student  days, 
and  has  been  given  student  teaching  in  the  conservatory.  The 
next  two  might  do  something  quite  creditable  with  their  voices 
so  far  as  innate  capacity  is  concerned,  but  they  have  not  as  yet 
specialized  in  voice.  The  fifth  began  her  lessons  comparatively 
late  and  will  not  be  able  to  do  much  with  the  piano.  She  gives 
promise  of  unusual  success  as  a  singer.  The  sixth  is  a  good  all¬ 
round  musician,  a  good  pianist  and  endowed  with  an  unusual 
contralto  voice.  She  prefers  singing  to  any  other  method  of  mu¬ 
sical  expression  for  herself.  The  seventh  of  this  group  needs  a 


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151 


somewhat  detailed  description.  As  a  child  she  acquired  a  partic¬ 
ularly  sturdy  complex  against  piano  playing  owing  to  the  stupid 
and  monotonous  drudgery  connected  with  her  piano  lessons.  She 
had  studied  with  a  teacher  who  kept  her  at  long  drawn-out  tasks 
which  resulted  in  the  above  mentioned  aversion  to  the  piano. 
This  aversion  she  still  feels  and  does  not  care  to  make  that  instru¬ 
ment  the  medium  of  her  musical  expression.  She  has  only  the 
average  range  and  quality  of  voice  and  probably  will  have  only 
an  average  grade  of  achievement  in  singing.  But  she  loves  danc¬ 
ing  and  desires  above  all  things  to  express  herself  in  that.  She 
came  to  the  conservatory  with  dancing  particularly  in  mind  but 
was  forced  to  give  it  up,  at  least  temporarily,  on  account  of  an 
operation  and  is  devoting  the  period  of  waiting  to  the  study  of 
public  school  music. 

Group  II  is  made  up  of  those  who  are  high  in  the  measure¬ 
ments  of  all  the  factors,  except  those  concerned  with  motor 
capacity,  where  they  are  average.  These  cannot  be  grouped  by 
their  likenesses  but  must  be  described  individually  by  their  dif¬ 
ferences.  Three  of  them  have  lovely  voices  and  give  promise 
of  becoming  unusual  singers.  Three  more  are  excellent  per¬ 
formers  on  the  piano;  one  of  them  being  considered  among  the 
best  in  the  music  school.  The  other  two  show  a  lack  of  poise 
and  self-control  which  may  be  indicated  by  the  motor  tests. 
The  seventh  plays  the  piano  well  but  does  not  care  to  be  a  per¬ 
former.  She  is  studying  to  be  a  public  school  music  teacher. 

Average  motor  capacity,  then,  in  conjunction  with  high 
sensory  keenness,  seems  to  admit  of  high  achievement,  although 
not  invariably  as  in  Group  I,  where  the  motor  capacity  is  also 
high. 

Group  III  comprises  those  students  who  are  high  in  sensory 
capacity  but  low  in  some  respects  in  the  motor  tests.  It  may  be 
noted  here  that  the  motor  tests  themselves  are  to  be  diagnostic 
only  in  connection  with  the  description  of  the  cases.  ‘'Tem¬ 
perament/'  "lack  of  self-confidence,”  and  “over  self-confidence,” 
seem  to  enter  into  the  final  achievement  as  much  as  innate 
capacity,  as  shown  by  the  measurements.  The  first  of  this 


152 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


group  is  so  far  below  the  standard  required  in  this  music  school 
that  she  has  been  advised  to  discontinue  her  musical  studies. 
The  second  girl  in  this  group  can  also  be  explained  only  by  a 
study  of  other  elements  than  the  actual  results  of  the  tests.  She 
is  overweeningly  ambitious,  but  at  the  same  time  hardworking 
and  conscientious.  Her  teachers  say  that  she  shows  no  signs 
of  becoming  the  expert  performer  that  from  her  ambition  and 
industry  she  very  evidently  confidently  expects  to  be.  Her 
singing  voice  is  only  ordinary  although  she  expects  to  develop 
into  a  concert  singer.  She  appears  to  be  quite  unconscious  of 
the  value  of  the  experience  of  those  around  her.  She  cannot 
take  advice.  Her  innate  capacity,  except  in  the  range  and 
quality  of  her  voice,  seems  to  be  of  sufficient  merit,  but  the  fact 
remains  that  she  is  accomplishing  very  little.  The  third  mem¬ 
ber  of  this  group  is  the  one  described  in  full  as  A.  Her  superior 
sensory  capacity  and  rather  inferior  motor  capacity  work  out 
quite  logically  in  explaining  her  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of 
music  without  producing  within  her  any  overwhelming  desire 
to  be  an  expert  performer.  The  fourth  member  of  Group  III 
has  a  very  beautiful  singing  voice,  and  with  a  very  few  piano 
lessons  has  learned  to  play  her  own  accompaniments.  She  is 
considered  one  of  the  successes  of  the  music  school.  She  is 
a  peculiarly  well  balanced  young  woman  and  able  to  live  up 
to  the  full  possibilities  of  her  inborn  powers.  The  fifth  in  the 
group  cannot  sing  at  all  but  is  becoming  a  good  piano  player. 

Group  IV  embraces  those  who  are  well  above  the  average  in 
their  sensory  measurements,  and  who  are  on  the  whole  average 
in  their  motor  measurements.  Three  of  this  group  are  good 
singers.  The  first  also  gave  promise  at  one  time  of  being  a  good 
violinist,  but  was  interrupted  in  her  study  of  that  instrument. 
She  has  serious  trouble  with  her  eyes  which  has  continued  from 
childhood.  Indeed,  as  a  child  it  had  a  pernicious  influence  upon 
her,  making  her  feel  a  quite  unwarranted  sense  of  inferiority. 
She  is  unable  even  now  to  do  the  work  of  the  music  school,  such 
as  the  writing  of  music  scores,  which  depends  upon  the  use  of 
the  eyes.  But  an  unusually  lovely  voice  which  she  is  learning 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


153 


to  use  successfully  is  restoring  her  self-confidence,  and  she  will 
undoubtedly  do  excellent  musical  work.  The  second  is  also  en¬ 
dowed  with  a  voice  of  superior  range  and  quality;  she  has 
grown  up  in  a  musical  environment  and  is  doing  excellent  sing¬ 
ing.  The  third  is  gifted  with  a  beautiful  singing  voice  and  is 
only  impeded  in  her  career  by  a  frail  physique. 

The  fourth  in  this  group  is  developing  into  a  good  pianist, 
but  the  character  of  her  playing  will  be  limited  by  the  structure 
of  her  hand  which  is  small  and  delicate.  She  has  the  charac¬ 
teristic,  in  common  with  the  fifth,  of  being  somewhat  lacking 
in  determination  and  energy.  Both  of  them  may  be  acceptable 
players  but  their  temperaments  will  not  lead  them  on  to  great 
musical  triumphs.  The  sixth,  with  no  conspicuous  inferiority 
in  sensory  or  motor  capacity,  will  probably  never  achieve  very 
great  success  in  music,  because  she  is  not  single-minded  in  her 
wish  to  succeed.  She  comes  to  the  music  school  because  she  is 
sent  there  by  her  parents  and  is  not  sufficiently  motivated  to 
make  her  study  of  music  count  toward  definite  accomplishment. 
The  seventh  case  in  this  group  deserves  separate  mention.  Like 
the  others  the  psychological  measurements  find  her  excellent  in 
sensory  capacity  and  average  in  motor  capacity.  But  she  is  not 
even  so  good  a  performer  as  most  of  the  others.  There  is  no 
reason  she  could  not  learn  to  perform  very  creditably  on 
some  instrument  except  the  fact  that  she  is  so  interested  in  com¬ 
posing  that  she  uses  her  powers  of  performance  merely  as  an 
aid  in  composition  and  not  as  an  end  in  itself.  She  seems  to 
possess  the  musical  creative  impulse,  and,  so  far  as  her  compar¬ 
atively  short  musical  studies  have  led  her,  stands  out  as  a  pos¬ 
sible  creative  musician. 

From  the  foregoing  study,  then,  we  would  seem  justified  in 
saying  that  those  who  are  superior  in  every  way  in  their  in¬ 
nate  musical  capacities,  as  shown  by  the  tests,  are  superior  in 
their  achievement,  while  those  who  are  superior  or  excellent 
in  sensory  capacity  but  average  in  motor  capacity  may  become 
superior  performers  if  all  the  conditions  of  environment,  train¬ 
ing,  and  the  adjustment  of  physical  and  mental  equipment  are 


154 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAW 


favorable.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  their  environmental  factors 
are  unfavorable  their  native  powers  may  he  so  inhibited  as  to 
preclude  the  possibility  of  their  becoming  even  passable  per¬ 
formers. 

It  is  unfortunate,  from  the  standpoint  of  research,  that  in  this 
music  school  there  was  no  opportunity  to  compare  the  measure¬ 
ments  of  those  who  fail  in  trying  to  learn  music.  There  is  un¬ 
doubtedly  a  weeding  out  process  before  the  music  school  is 
reached,  and  we  shall  rarely  find  there  any  who  will  be  very  low 
in  all  the  sensory  and  motor  measurements. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  mention  briefly  here  the 
results  of  a  later  study  of  a  selected  group  of  students  in  a  Nor¬ 
mal  School.  Of  twenty  students  reported  as  unable  to  Jearn 
the  required  music  only  two  were  found  to  be  even  average  in 
sensory  capacity.  None  but  the  sensory  measurements  were 
made  but  observation  of  the  singing  of  these  two  revealed  the 
fact  that  there  was  distinct  motor  inferiority  which  made  them 
unable  to  reproduce  the  sounds  which  they  heard.  The  diagnosis 
of  the  other  eighteen  was  extremely  simple.  They  were  dis¬ 
tinctly  inferior  in  sensory  capacity  and  the  resultant  inferiority 
in  achievement  logically  ensued. 

Some  practical  suggestions 

There  are  two  ways  at  least  in  which  these  tests  may  be  used 
practically  in  a  music  school.  First,  they  give  an  analysis  of 
the  capacities  upon  which  the  individual  student  must  rely,  and 
also  an  objective  measurement  to  the  teacher  which  he  can 
compare  with  the  actual  achievement  of  the  student.  Thus,  if  a 
student  is  superior  in  all  his  capacities  according  to  the  tests 
and  is  not  living  up  to  his  possibilities,  this  fact  can  be  presented 
to  both  the  student  himself  and  to  his  teacher  in  a  concrete  and 
specific  form.  If  a  student  is  of  the  average  in  his  innate  capa¬ 
cities  as  shown  by  the  tests,  neither  he  nor  his  teacher  has  the 
right  to  expect  the  same  quality  or  quantity  of  performance  to 
which  the  superior  student  should  attain. 

The  second  and  perhaps  the  most  important  way  in  which 
the  results  of  these  measurements  may  be  used  is  in  finding  out 


SURVEY  OF  MUSICAL  TALENT  IN  MUSIC  SCHOOL 


155 


the  strengths  and  weaknesses  of  individual  students.  Among 
those  who  are  neither  conspicuously  superior  nor  inferior  are 
many  who  are  not  working  in  the  way  to  attain  the  best  results. 
Different  arrangements  of  sensory  and  motor  capacities;  various 
types  of  imagery  and  intelligence  demand  their  appropriate  treat¬ 
ment.  The  modern  music  teacher  must  consider  his  pupil  as 
an  individual,  with  all  his  capacities  individual;  not  just  a  capa¬ 
city  for  music,  but  capacities  to  be  analyzed  as  such  and  treated 
according  to  their  need.  For  such  an  analysis  and  diagnosis, 
these  psychological  measurements  are  especially  designed.  They 
reveal  strength  or  disability;  they  show  where  training  may 
profitably  be  undertaken  or  when  time  and  strength  may  be  used 
to  greater  advantage  in  other  pursuits.  Hence  they  become  an 
important  aid  to  instruction.  We  would  not  think  of  training  a 
Clydesdale  for  the  race  track;  why  attempt  the  impossibility  of 
making  a  musician  out  of  one  who  is  non-musical? 

It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  it  might  be  an  economy  if  a 
psychologist  capable  of  making  such  analyses  were  attached  to 
every  school  of  music.  He  would  be  not  only  of  great  assistance 
to  the  students  who  have  already  begun  their  study  of  music, 
and  to  the  teachers  who  have  them  in  charge  ;  but  he  would  be 
of  even  greater  service  to  the  young  children  who  appear  as 
prospective  pupils.  A  knowledge  of  the  possibilities  of  each 
individual  before  the  actual  study  of  music  is  undertaken  would 
enable  the  teachers  to  stimulate  the  genius  of  the  talented  child 
to  his  full  possibilities ;  to  help  the  average  child  according  to 
his  known  strength  or  weakness,  and  to  reject  those  who  are 
so  inferior  that  time  and  effort  expended  in  their  training  for 
a  musical  career  is  a  crime.  The  encouragement  of  the  superior 
and  average  by  intelligent  analysis  would  more  than  compensate 
in  increased  patronage  for  the  loss  of  a  few  who  should  be  dis¬ 
couraged.  The  wasteful,  haphazard  system  of  teaching  music 
which  has  existed  hitherto,  even  among  conscientious  teachers, 
is  possibly  no  worse  than  in  other  departments  of  education,  but 
it  should  be  eliminated  as  far  as  possible  in  order  to  conserve 
musical  talent.  The  resulting  increase  in  achievement  would 


ESTHER  ALLEN  GAIV 


156 

enrich  the  profession  of  music  incalculably,  for  “We  have  count¬ 
less  wonderful  capacities  lying  latent  and  unrecognized  as  far 
as  conscious  use  is  concerned.  The  apparent  squandering  of 
sensory  capacities  (alone)  may  well  be  compared  to  the  great 
waste  in  the  struggle  for  existence  by  various  forms  of  prolific 
extravagance  in  reproduction.  We  are  richly  endowed  with 
capacities  of  which  we  employ  relatively  few,  and  these  only  in 
an  inadequate  way”  (8,  p.  157). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Agnew,  Marie  M.  A  Comparison  of  the  Auditory  Images  of  Musicians, 

Psychologists,  and  Children.  (In  this  volume.) 

2.  Coover,  J.  E.,  and  Angell,  F.  General  Practice  Effect  of  Special  Exer¬ 

cise.  Am.  J.  of  Psychol.,  1907,  XVIII,  p.  335. 

3.  Donaldson,  H.  H.  Science,  N.  S.,  1919,  XLIX,  p.  1266. 

4.  Hansen,  C.  F.  Serial  Action  as  a  Basic  Measure  of  Motor  Capacity. 

(In  this  volume.) 

5.  Miles,  W.  R.  Accuracy  of  Voice  in  Simple  Pitch  Singing.  Univ.  of 

Iowa  Stud,  in  Psychol.,  1914,  VI,  13-66. 

6.  Seashore,  C.  E.  A  Method  of  Measuring  Mental  Work:  the  Psycher- 

gograph.  Univ.  of  Iowa  Stud,  in  Psychol.,  1902,  III,  1-17. 

7.  Seashore,  C.  E.,  and  Mount,  G.  H.  Correlations  of  Factors  in  Musical 

Talent  and  Training.  Univ.  of  Iowa  Stud,  in  Psychol.,  1918,  VII, 
47-92. 

8.  Seashore,  C.  E.  Elementary  Experiments  in  Psychology.  New  York: 

Henry  Holt,  1908. 

9.  Seashore,  C.  E.  The  Measurement  of  Pitch  Discrimination.  Psychol. 

Rev.  Monog.,  1910,  LIII,  21-60. 

10.  Seashore,  C.  E.  The  Psychology  of  Musical  Talent.  Boston:  Silver, 

Burdett  &  Co.,  1919. 

11.  Seashore,  C.  E.  The  Tonoscope.  Univ.  of  Iowa  Stud,  in  Psychol., 

1914,  VI,  1-13. 

12.  Terman,  L.  M.  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.  Boston:  Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co.,  1916. 

13.  Whipple,  G.  M.  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.  Baltimore: 

Warwick  &  York,  1914.  (Part  1.) 


THE  INHERITANCE  OF  SPECIFIC  MUSICAL 

CAPACITIES 

by 

Hazel  Martha  Stanton,  Ph.D. 

Description  of  material;  method  of  investigation;  analyzed  rating  of  sup¬ 
plementary  data  ( musical  environment,  education  and  training,  activity, 
appreciation,  memory  and  imagination,  emotional  reaction  to  music,  role  of 
music  in  daily  life,  creative  ability  in  music,  higher  education  independent  of 
music )  ;  records :  Kappa,  Rho,  Alpha,  Lambda,  Gamma  and  Epsilon  groups 
( explanation  and  legend  of  talent  pedigree  charts,  rating  in  musical  activity 
and  talent  charts,  explanation  of  tables,  family  musical  history)  ;  types  of 
mating  and  progeny :  based  upon  ancestral  musical  items ;  discussion  of  data 
on  the  inheritance  of  musical  capacities  ( family  distribution  of  capacities, 
method  of  inheritance,  presence  or  absence  of  determiner )  ;  problem  of  dif¬ 
ferent  age  groups;  relation  of  musical  capacities  to  supplementary  data; 
summary  of  supplementary  factors  for  the  two  contrasted  groups  of  talent 
profiles;  comparison  of  highest  five  per  cent  and  loivcst  five  per  cent;  general 
summary;  references. 

The  experimental  investigation  of  musical  inheritance  with 
members  of  musical  families  was  initiated  in  1920  through  the 
generous  cooperation  of  men1  prominent  in  the  fields  of  psych- 
ology,  genetics,  and  music.  The  immediate  purpose  of  this  in¬ 
vestigation  is  an  attempt  by  means  of  quantitative  methods  to 
secure  information  regarding  the  inheritance  of  certain  musical 
capacities.  A  more  remote  purpose  is  the  study  of  the  signif¬ 
icance  of  such  specific  measures  in  interpreting  the  inheritance  of 
the  manifold  musical  capacities  which  comprise  musical  talent. 
A  necessary  prerequisite  to  this  procedure  is  the  development 

*Dr.  C.  E.  Seashore,  Head  of  the  Department  of  Philosophy  and  Psy¬ 
chology,  State  University  of  Iowa,  made  the  scientific  approach  to  this  prob¬ 
lem  possible  by  many  years  of  directed  research  in  developing  and  stan¬ 
dardizing  measurements  of  basic  musical  capacities.  Dr.  C.  B.  Davenport, 
Director  of  the  Department  of  Genetics,  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington, 
was  personally  instrumental  in  effecting  this  study  of  inheritance.  Their 
constructive  suggestions  and  sustained  interest  throughout  the  study  were 
most  helpful. 


158 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


of  the  scientific  psychology  of  music  in  which  musical  talent  can 
be  analyzed  into  basic  musical  capacities  that  may  be  isolated  and 
reliably  measured  in  persons  who  are  musical  or  unmusical, 
young  or  old,  trained  or  untrained. 

This  report  of  procedure  of  the  results  so  far  obtained  serves 
a  three-fold  purpose:  to  record  the  method  of  procedure,  both 
general  and  specific;  to  classify  the  data  in  preparation  for  fur¬ 
ther  investigation ;  and  to  formulate  tentative  conclusions  as  to 
the  probable  type  of  inheritance  in  the  light  of  these  data. 

It  was  deemed  expedient  to  begin  this  work  with  recognized 
musical  families2  in  the  East  and  Middle  West;  therefore  the 
writer  was  given  several  months  leave  of  absence  from  the  State 
University  of  Iowa.  The  necessary  expenses  of  field  work  were 
met  by  an  appropriation  granted  by  the  Carnegie  Institution  of 
Washington,  through  the  Department  of  Genetics,  Cold  Spring 
Harbor,  Long  Island,  New  York. 

Description  of  material 

Considering  the  time  allotted  for  field  work,  the  number  and 
kind  of  available  measures  of  musical  talent,  and  the  various 
possibilities  of  selecting  observers  (7,  p.  597),  there  were  several 
plans  feasible  for  this  preliminary  investigation.  In  the  plan 
followed,  four  measures  of  musical  capacities,  the  sense  of  pitch, 
the  sense  of  intensity,  the  sense  of  time,  and  tonal  memory,  were 
given  to  members  of  families  in  which  one  member  was  known 
to  be  conspicuously  talented  in  music.  These  four  capacities 
were  selected  for  a  study  of  the  inheritance  of  certain  musical 
traits  because  extensive  experimentation  has  revealed  their  ap¬ 
parent  basic  nature  and  has  shown  them  to  be  little  affected  by 
practice,  age,  musical  training,  sex,  or  general  intelligence.  The 
measures  were  supplemented  by  a  special  interrogation  dealing 
with  individual  case  histories,  individual  musical  experiences, 
family  musical  history,  and  a  short  association  test. 

The  measurements  of  intensity  discrimination,  time  discrim- 

2  In  behalf  of  those  interested  in  the  procedure  of  this  study  I  sincerely 
thank  the  musicians  and  their  relatives  for  their  willing  and  faithful  co¬ 
operation. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


159 


ination,  and  tonal  memory  were  given  by  phonographic  records3 
on  which  stimuli  from  the  standard  laboratory  apparatus  have 
been  recorded  by  Professor  C.  E.  Seashore. 

For  the  measurement  of  the  sense  of  pitch  in  terms  of  pitch 
discrimination,  the  standard  pitch  discrimination  forks  with 
resonators  were  used  in  place  of  the  phonograph  record,  first, 
because  they  are  better  adapted  for  very  fine  measurements,  and 
second,  in  order  to  introduce  variety  in  the  procedure  (9,  p.  26). 

Pitch  discrimination  (  9  )  is  measured  by  pitch  intervals  rang¬ 
ing  from  30  d.  v.  to  %.  d.  v.  in  a  tonal  region  of  435  d.  v.  The 
observer  discriminates  between  two  tones  differing  in  pitch, 
the  second  tone  presented  being  higher  or  lower  than  the  first. 
For  the  purpose  of  intensive  work  the  individual  method  of  con¬ 
stant  stimuli  was  used  in  preference  to  the  group  method.  The 
threshold  values  were  computed  from  conversion  tables  (  4  ). 

Intensity,  time,  and  memory  were  studied  by  means  of  the 
serial  stimulus  method :  i.e.,  a  series  of  fifty  or  one  hundred 
stimulus  differences  was  given  and  a  record  was  made  on  the 
basis  of  per  cent,  right  for  the  series  (6,  p.  79,  103,  236). 

Intensity  discrimination  (6,  p.  79)  is  a  measure  of  the  capacity 
for  discriminating  differences  in  intensity  or  loudness.  This 
measure  contains  five  graduated  steps,  the  first  easily  perceptible, 
the  last  very  difficult  to  perceive. 

The  measurement  of  time  discrimination  (6,  p.  103)  refers  to 
an  individual’s  capacity  for  discriminating  between  two  time  in¬ 
tervals,  the  second  one  presented  being  longer  or  shorter  than  the 
first.  The  stimuli  cover  a  range  of  five  steps,  varying  from  an 
easily  perceptible  difference  of  .20  second  to  a  difference  of  .02 
second.  The  series  of  stimuli  contain  twenty  trials  for  each 
step.  Such  a  measure  of  an  individual’s  capacity  for  discrim¬ 
inating  time  intervals  is  not  a  measure  of  rhythmic  perception 
but  a  measure  of  one  of  the  basic  constituents  of  rhythm.  It 
gives  one  partial  knowledge  of  the  sensory  aspects  of  rhythm, 
the  receiving  of  an  elementary  impression  of  time  which  depends 
upon  more  than  the  functioning  of  a  sensitive  ear. 

3  Seashore's  Measures  of  Musical  Talent :  A  and  B  7537,  Sense  of  In¬ 
tensity;  A  and  B  7538,  Sense  of  Time;  A  and  B  7540,  Tonal  Memory.  The 
Columbia  Graphophone  Company,  (10)  New  York. 


i6o 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


The  test  of  tonal  memory  (6,  p.  236)  is  a  measure  of  im¬ 
mediate  memory  for  a  span  of  tones.  It  consists  of  five  steps 
gradually  increasing  in  difficulty,  each  step  containing  a  certain 
number  of  successively  presented  tones  followed  by  a  second 
span  of  the  same  tones  with  the  exception  of  one  tone  which  is 
changed  in  pitch.  The  spans  increase  gradually  in  presentation 
from  two  tones  to  six  tones.  The  observer  identifies  the  changed 
tone  by  indicating  its  number  in  the  group.  This  measure  of 
the  capacity  for  immediate  memory  is  servicable  only  as  one  of 
the  many  possibilities  of  measuring  the  different  aspects  of 
musical  memory. 

Norms.  The  answers  to  all  the  trials  of  a  measure  are 
recorded  for  each  observer  on  prepared  record  blanks.  From 
these  answers  the  percentage  of  right  judgments  is  found  in 
order  to  evaluate  the  per  cent,  right  in  terms  of  percentile  ranks4 
based  on  the  results  obtained  from  a  large  unselected  group. 

Method  of  investigation 

In  the  fall  of  1919,  Dr.  C.  B.  Davenport  sent  letters  to  a 
number  of  American  musicians  asking  their  cooperation  in  a 
proposed  family  study  of  musical  inheritance  in  which  the  Sea¬ 
shore  Measures  of  Musical  Talent  would  be  used,  also  inquiring 
as  to  the  number  of  living  sibs  (brothers  and  sisters)  and  the 
size  of  the  family.  These  musicians,  favorably  located,  were 
chosen  for  the  reason  that  they  were  American  musicians  who 
had  attained  an  established  reputation  in  music. 

Selection  of  families.  Cordial  responses  were  received  from 
many  musicians.  In  selecting  those  from  whom  a  family  study 
could  be  developed  we  chose  musicians  who  were  available  for 
an  interview  during  the  months  reserved  for  their  section  of 
the  country  and  who  had  families  the  members  of  which  were 
significant  in  number  and  available  for  appointments. 

Scope  of  investigation.  The  unrelated  musicians  selected  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  factors  mentioned  above  form  the  centre  of  each 

4  The  percentile  rank  tables  used  for  intensity,  time,  and  memory  are 
found  in  the  Manual  (10).  The  percentile  rank  for  pitch  thresholds  with 
tuning  forks  is  not  published. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES  161 

family  group.  In  so  far  as  possible  a  family  study  includes  all 
members  of  the  so-called  restricted  family  (3,  p.  6).  As  a  re¬ 
sult  over  five  hundred  individuals  are  charted  in  six  family 
groups.  Of  these  groups  eighty-five  persons  were  interviewed 
and  given  the  measures  of  musical  capacities.  The  persons  in¬ 
terviewed  range  in  age  from  eight  years  to  eighty  years.  The 
propositi5  range  in  age  from  forty-five  years  to  sixty-five  years ; 
consequently  their  parents  are  deceased  or  very  old.  A  three 
generation  study  was  possible  in  five  of  the  six  family  groups. 

Procedure.  The  individual  interviews  were  easily  adapted  to 
one  or  to  several  periods  of  time.  Under  most  favorable  con¬ 
ditions  the  total  individual  time  requisite  was  two  hours.  In 
some  cases  several  members  of  a  family  could  be  assembled  for 
the  group  measurements.  The  interviews  occurred  in  various 
places, — the  studio,  the  home,  the  college,  the  office,  or  the  room¬ 
ing  place.  The  essential  requirement  was  a  reasonably  quiet 
place,  comparatively  free  from  interruptions. 

The  most  advantageous  order  of  presenting  the  material 
proved  to  be,  (1)  the  measure  of  pitch  discrimination  with  the 
tuning  forks,  (2)  the  free  association  test,  (3)  the  three  meas¬ 
ures  on  the  phonographic  discs,  the  sense  of  intensity,  the  sense 
of  time,  tonal  memory;  (4)  the  interrogation. 

Objective  and  subjective  variables.  Field  work  of  this  nature 
involves  various  conditions  which  may  exert  favorable  or  un¬ 
favorable  objective  and  subjective  influence  upon  the  individual 
results.  Some  of  these  influencing  variables  were  the  place, 
time  and  length  of  the  appointments,  the  apparatus  used,  the  per¬ 
sonality  of  the  experimenter,  the  number  and  effect  of  inter¬ 
ruptions,  the  grasping  of  directions  by  the  observer,  his  mental 
poise,  interest  and  concentration. 

Analyzed  rating  of  supplementary  data 

That  part  of  the  supplementary  data  which  covers  the  musical 
information  is  divided  into  the  five  sections  of  environment, 
education  and  training,  activity,  appreciation,  and  memory  and 
imagination.  In  each  of  these  sections  minor  statements  and 

5  The  musicians  from  whom  each  family  study  progressed. 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


162 

questions  subordinate  to  the  general  topic  were  submitted  ver¬ 
bally  to  each  person.  In  brief  they  are  as  follows: 

Musical  environment 

Opportunities  for  hearing  music  in  parental  home ;  members  of  family 
who  play  and  sing;  musical  instruments  in  the  home. 

Opportunities  for  hearing  music  in  the  community ;  to  what  extent  were 
these  opportunities  utilized. 

Individual  effort  exerted  to  gain  or  avoid  a  musical  environment. 

Musical  encouragement  in  the  home. 

Musical  education  and  training 

Study  in  voice,  with  an  instrument,  in  composition,  harmony,  theory,  orches¬ 
tration,  etc;  time  spent  with  each  (approximate  number  of  years);  time  of 
life  in  which  study  occurred. 

Musical  activity 

Type  of  musical  activity;  instrumentalist,  vocalist,  composer,  conductor, 
writer,  lecturer. 

Public  appearances  in  singing  or  playing. 

Tonal  range  in  singing. 

Natural  ability  to  carry  a  tune,  to  improvise,  to  play  by  ear,  to  transpose, 
to  read  at  sight. 

Musical  appreciation 

Earliest  interest  in  music. 

Kinds  of  music  liked  and  disliked. 

Kinds  and  degree  of  feeling  aroused  by  music;  what  type  of  music  arouses 
this  feeling. 

Role  of  music  in  daily  thought. 

Desire  to  have  studied  or  heard  music. 

Musical  memory  and  imagination 

Facility  of  memorizing;  aids:  visual,  auditory,  tactual,  technical  knowledge. 

Music  recalled  by  ear,  sight,  or  movement. 

Type  of  melodies  present  in  mind,  occasionally  or  continually,  during 
work,  rest,  or  play. 

Creative  efforts. 

One  question  often  stimulated  a  response  which  covered 
many  of  the  items  listed  without  further  inquiry.  In  all  but  a 
few  cases  restraint  was  evidenced  on  the  part  of  the  person  re¬ 
sponding. 

For  the  purpose  of  presenting  and  correlating  this  musical 
information  with  the  results  of  the  musical  measurements  an 
attempt  was  made  to  classify  and  rate  such  of  the  material  as 
seemed  adequate. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES  ,  163 

Since  the  scope  of  this  investigation  includes  one  well  recog¬ 
nized  musician  in  each  family  group  a  wide  variation  exists, 
from  those  who  have  made  signal  achievement  in  music  to  those 
who  are  not  at  all  musically  inclined.  This  variation,  inclusive 
as  it  is  of  two  extremes,  forms  the  basis  of  classification  into 
three  groups :  the  A  group,  considered  high ;  the  C  group,  aver¬ 
age;  and  the  E  group,  low.  Later  inclusion  of  more  cases  will 
justify  a  more  detailed  classification  and  perhaps  a  more  definite 
basis  of  classification.  It  has  been  a  conscious  aim  in  introduc¬ 
ing  this  classification  to  prepare  the  way  for  further  study  so 
that  B  and  D  groups  may  be  inserted. 

For  each  item  rated,  examples  of  class  A,  C,  and  E  will  be 
given  on  the  following  pages.  These  examples  are  specific  illus¬ 
trations  of  information  obtained  from  those  interviewed. 

Musical  environment  during  youth  in  the  home 

A — Musical  artists  heard  frequently  in  the  home  during  concert  tours. 

One  or  both  parents  professional  musicians  and  expressing  their  art  in 
the  home. 

Parents’  studio  in  the  home. 

C — Several  members  of  the  family  studying  music. 

Family  singing  or  playing  daily. 

E — Hymns  sung  at  morning  prayer. 

Self  practising. 

One  parent  playing  or  singing  occasionally. 

No  music  heard  at  all. 

Musical  environment  during  youth  in  the  community 

A — Heard  opera  and  concerts  by  vocal  or  instrumental  artists,  either  solo 
or  ensemble. 

Attended  city  music  festivals. 

B — Heard  one  or  two  musical  artists  or  symphony  concerts  occasionally. 
Often  heard  good  church  organist. 

E — Heard  only  church  and  Sunday-school  music  in  small  village. 

No  concerts  heard. 

Musical  environment  in  the  community  during  adult  life 
A — Regular  attendant  of  winter  concerts  and  opera  in  New  York  City, 
Boston,  and  Chicago. 

C — Attended  college  concerts  regularly. 

Went  to  the  city  occasionally  for  a  concert. 

E — Country  church  music. 

Singing  school. 


164 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


Few  musical  programs  heard. 

No  concerts  attended. 

Musical  education  and  training 

A — Major  in  music  during  a  university  or  college  course  accompanied  and 
followed  by  extensive  private  study. 

One  or  more  years’  study  abroad. 

C — Music  courses  in  college  or  private  lessons  in  musical  theory,  in  addition 
to  several  years  of  study  in  voice  or  instrument  or  both  earlier  in  life. 

E — Three  or  four  years  of  study  on  an  instrument  early  in  life. 

Occasional  lessons  011  one  or  more  instruments. 

No  musical  education  or  training. 

Musical  activity 

A — Studio  or  concert  artists. 

Musical  educators  and  writers. 

Composers  of  merit. 

Recognized  professional  teachers. 

C — Appeared  in  public  recitals,  amateur  performances,  choruses,  choirs. 

Few  compositions  in  manuscript  only. 

E — Played  hymns. 

Sang  few  times  in  glee  clubs. 

No  public  appearances. 

Emotional  reaction  to  music 

A — Repeated  experiences  of  emotional  states,  aroused  by  musical  stimula¬ 
tion,  expressed  in  the  form  of  exhaustion,  sobbing,  exhilaration,  trans¬ 
ferred  into  another  world,  conscious  outgo  of  emotional  power. 

C — Occasional  experiences  of  forgetting  self,  feeling  of  inspiration,  cold 
chills  or  thrills. 

E — No  conscious  reaction  experienced. 

Vague  feeling  of  unhappiness  or  joy. 

Role  of  music  in  daily  life 
A — Private  teacher  of  voice  or  instrument. 

Music  a  part  of  daily  mental  diet. 

Great  source  of  courage,  a  spiritual  tonic,  a  daily  necessity. 

C — Several  hours  each  day  of  practice. 

E — No  daily  thought  given  to  music. 

No  music  heard. 


Creative  ability  in  music 

A — Composer  of  songs,  choruses,  concertos,  symphonies. 
C — Improviser. 

Manuscript  compositions. 

Writes  music  for  operettas. 

E — No  creative  power. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


165 


Higher  education  independent  of  music 

A — Graduate  degrees  or  advanced  professional  degrees. 

Completion  of  a  four-year  university  or  college  course  with  a  degree. 
C — Less  than  four  years’  college  study. 

E — No  college  or  university  study. 

Incomplete  high  school  education. 

The  number  of  cases  occurring  in  each  of  the  three  groups 
for  each  topic  above  is  recorded  in  the  tables  found  in  the  sec¬ 
tion  showing  the  relationships  between  musical  capacities  and 
supplementary  data. 

Records 

The  records  for  each  family  group  consist  of  four  parts.  (1) 
the  talent  pedigree  charts  of  musical  capacities,  (2)  tabulation 
of  individual  ratings  in  musical  activity  and  talent  profile  classi¬ 
fication,  (3)  tables  of  classified  musical  information  and  meas¬ 
ures  of  musical  capacities,  (4)  family  musical  history. 

Explanation  and  legend  of  talent  pedigree  charts.  In  each 
of  the  talent  pedigree  charts  the  Roman  numerals  at  the  left 
indicate  the  generation  number,  the  Arabic  numerals  give  the 
individual  number.  These  numbers  are  taken  from  the  original 
pedigree  charts.6  The  squares  indicate  males;  the  circles,  fe¬ 
males.  A  connecting  horizontal  line  from  a  square  to  a  circle 
shows  a  mating.  Any  continuous  horizontal  line  with  vertical 
drops  and  usually  suspended  from  a  mating  in  the  generation 
above  comprises  a  sibship.  Greek  letter  names  were  arbitarily 
assigned  to  each  of  the  six  family  groups.  In  order  to  represent 
on  one  chart  the  results  of  the  musical  measurements  for  each 
individual,  a  small  diagrammatic  talent  chart  is  suspended  from 
the  squares  and  circles.  Its  scope  from  left  to  right  indicates 
the  percentile  rank  ranging  in  ten  divisions  from  1  to  100.  The 
four  horizontal  divisions  provide  for  the  recording  of  the  rank 
for  each  measurement  of  musical  capacity.  The  pitch  rank  is 
designated  in  the  upper  section,  the  intensity  rank  in  the  second, 

6  The  original  pedigree  charts,  filed  in  the  Eugenics  Record  Office,  include 
relatives,  about  whom  musical  information  was  obtained,  in  addition  to  those 
interviewed.  The  talent  pedigree  charts  include  only  those  to  whom  the 
measurements  of  musical  talent  were  given. 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


166 

the  time  rank  in  the  third,  and  the  memory  rank  in  the  lower 
section.  Comparison  of  parents  and  children  may  be  made 
directly  from  any  measurement  by  observing  the  percentile  rank 
for  each  capacity  which  is  indicated  by  the  heavy  black  ver¬ 
tical  line.  Each  percentile  rank  line  is  interpreted  by  its  distance 
from  the  left  side  of  the  talent  chart  in  terms  of  the  scale  given 
on  the  next  following  page.  Each  talent  chart  contains  four  such 
vertical  lines  connected  so  as  to  represent  a  talent  profile.  The 
dotted  black  vertical  line  means  that  no  rank  was  obtained  in 
the  measurement.  An  incomplete  pattern  is  due  to  the  omis¬ 
sion  of  some  of  the  measurements. 

Rating  in  musical  activity  and  talent  charts.  For  the  purpose 
of  relating  the  four  capacities  as  a  whole  to  various  phases  of 
the  supplementary  data,  each  talent  profile  has  been  classified 
as  superior,  excellent,  average,  or  poor.  This  classification  was 
made  by  personal  judgment  based  on  a  normal  distribution  of 
approximately  one  thousand  talent  charts  of  an  unselected 
group  (8).  Immediately  following  each  talent  pedigree  chart  the 
rating  in  musical  activity  and  the  talent  profile  classification  for 
each  individual  are  presented  for  the  purpose  of  direct  com¬ 
parison  between  these  two  factors. 

Explanation  of  tables.  The  data  in  each  table  consist  of 
classified  information  concerning  the  persons  interviewed.  In 
column  i,  individual  numbers  are  preceded  by  the  generation 
number  and  group  letter;  in  column  2,  M  indicates  male,  F,  fe¬ 
male;  in  column  3,  the  appropriate  age  in  years  is  given;  columns 
4 ,  5,  6,  7,  contain  results  of  the  four  musical  measurements;  the 
sense  of  pitch,  the  sense  of  intensity,  the  sense  of  time,  and  tonal 
memory  respectively  in  terms  of  the  scale,  very  superior  (V.  S. 
98-100),  superior  (Sup.  90-97),  excellent  (Exc.  70-89),  high 
average  (H.A.  60-69),  average  (Ave.  40-59),  low  average 
(L.A.  30-39),  poor  (P.  10-29),  very  poor  (V.P.  1-9).  The 

letters  N.R.  mean  no  record;  two  dashes - mean  no  rank.7 

The  ratings  in  columns  8  to  16  are  given  in  terms  of  A,  consid- 

7  “No  record”  means  that  the  individual  did  not  take  the  measurement.  “No 
rank”  means  that  the  individual  tried  to  take  the  measurement  but  failed  to 
make  a  score. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


167 


ered  high  (A,*  very  high) ;  C,  average;  and  E,  low.  Columns 
8,  9,  10,  indicate  the  ratings  for  musical  environment  during 
youth  in  the  home  and  community,  and  during  adult  life  in  the 
community;  column  11,  ratings  for  musical  education;  column 
12,  ratings  of  musical  activity;  column  13,  ratings  for  creative 
ability  in  music;  column  14,  ratings  for  emotional  reaction  to 
musical  stimulation;  column  15,  ratings  for  the  role  of  music 
in  daily  life;  column  16,  ratings  of  general  education.  In  blank 
spaces  where  no  ratings  occur  the  individuals  were  too  young 
for  classification. 

Family  musical  history.  This  section  includes  brief  state¬ 
ments  made  by  the  observers  as  to  musical  expression  and  in¬ 
terest  evinced  by  members  of  their  lineage.  Many  of  the  state¬ 
ments  are  recorded  verbatim  although  not  indicated  as  quota¬ 
tions. 


I — i — 6 


1 

”  T 

u 

_____ 

1 

Fig.  1.  Talent  Pedigree  Chart:  Kappa  Group. 

Reference  numbers  from  the  left  to  right,  for  the  first  row,  III  4,  3;  for 
the  second  row,  IV  2,  3,  6,  7,  9,  11,  12;  for  the  third  row,  V  1,  5,  4- 

Age  range — 67  years  to  8  years. 


Classification  of  musical  activity: 

Group  A— IV  3;  group  C— III  3;  IV  2;  group  E— III  4;  IV  6,  7,  9 
11,  12;  too  young  to  classify — V  1,  5,  4- 
Classification  of  talent  profiles : 

Superior— IV  7,  V  5  I  Excellent— IV  3,  6,  9,  n;  V  1,  4;  Average— III 
4,  3;  IV  2,  12;  Poor — None. 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


168 

General  comment : 

III  4  and  3  (both  average  profiles)  have  one  child  with  an  average 
profile;  IV  2  and  3  (average  and  excellent  profiles)  have  one  child 
with  excellent  profile;  IV  6  and  7  (excellent  and  superior  profiles) 
have  two  children  with  excellent  and  superior  profiles. 

Table  I.  Musical  data  classified :  Kappa  group 

MUSICAL  CAPACITIES  MUSICAL  RATINGS 


INDV. 

ENVIRONMENT 

YOUTH  AD. 

CREA. 

EMO. 

DAILY 

GEN. 

REF. 

SEX 

AGE 

PITCH 

INT. 

TIME 

MEMORY 

HOME 

COM. 

COM. 

EDUC. 

ACT. 

ABIL. 

REAC. 

ROLE 

EDUC. 

K  IV 

3 

M 

51 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

A* 

A 

A 

A* 

A* 

E 

A 

A 

c 

K  IV 

2 

F 

33 

Exc. 

Ave. 

L.A. 

H.A. 

C 

C 

A 

C 

c 

E 

C 

E 

c 

K  V 

1 

M 

8 

Sup. 

Poor 

Ave. 

Sup. 

E 

K  III 

4 

M 

67 

Ave. 

V.P. 

V.S. 

Poor 

C 

C 

A 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

K  III 

3 

F 

55 

Ave. 

Ave. 

L.A. 

Poor 

E 

A 

A 

C 

C 

E 

E 

C 

E 

K  IV 

7 

M 

50 

Exc. 

Sup. 

V.S. 

Ave. 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

C 

E 

A* 

K  IV 

6 

F 

49 

V.S. 

Poor 

Exc. 

V.S. 

A 

A 

A 

C 

E 

E 

A 

C 

E 

K  V 

5 

M 

14 

v.s. 

V.S. 

Sup. 

Exc. 

C 

K  V 

4 

F 

9 

Sup. 

H.A. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

C 

K  IV 

9 

M 

53 

L.A. 

V.S. 

Exc. 

L.A. 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

A 

E 

A 

K  IV 

11 

F 

48 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Exc. 

H.A. 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

C 

E 

A* 

K  IV 

12 

F 

44 

H.A. 

L.A. 

Exc. 

Ave. 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

Family 

Musical  History, 

Kappa  Group 

K  IV  2,  female,  Table  1,  plays  violin,  carries  a  tune  easily. 

Sib:  Brother  studied  the  cornet. 

Maternal  side:  Mother,  III  3,  Table  1,  plays  piano,  carries  tune  easily. 
Mother’s  sister  studied  violin  abroad,  a  professional  violinist.  Mother’s 
brother  picked  up  tunes  quickly  on  almost  any  instrument.  Mother’s  father, 
a  carpenter.  Mother’s  mother  not  enthusiastic  about  music,  played  piano  very 
little,  her  family  not  musical.  Mother’s  mother’s  brother,  offended  at  music. 
Mother’s  mother’s  father  played  cello  in  church. 

Paternal  side:  Father,  III  4,  Table  1,  whistled  melodies.  Father’s  sister 
studied  piano  with  recognized  musician  in  the  East.  Father’s  mother,  an 
amateur  pianist.  Father’s  mother’s  brother  played  the  flute,  promoter  of 
musical  concerts.  Father’s  father  enjoyed  music. 

K  IV  3,  male,  Table  I,  voice  teacher,  plays  violin,  operatic  singer. 

Sibs:  Brother,  deceased,  played  the  cello,  had  best  singing  voice  (bari¬ 
tone)  in  the  family.  Sister,  IV  6,  Table  I,  plays  piano,  does  not  sing  since 
voice  was  strained. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  a  “crack  soprano”  of  New  England  church  sing¬ 
ing.  During  senility  she  retained  as  lovely  a  voice  as  ever. 

Paternal  side:  Father,  an  organist,  educator,  composer  of  national  repute. 
Father’s  brother,  died  in  infancy.  Father’s  mother,  read  poetry  constantly 
to  her  son.  Father’s  father,  not  a  musician,  knew  only  two  tunes,  sent  son 
abroad  for  extensive  study  in  music  after  talent  was  evident. 

K  IV  7,  male,  Table  I,  does  not  play  or  sing,  cannot  whistle  a  tune  after 
hearing  it. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


169 


Sibs:  IV  9,  could  carry  a  tune,  does  not  play;  IV  11,  not  able  to  carry  a 
tune,  no  playing;  IV  12,  can  carry  a  tune,  no  playing.  Table  I. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  not  particularly  interested  in  music.  Family  not 
musical.  Of  eleven  sibs  one  sister  sang  a  little  but  not  a  lover  of  music. 

Paternal  side:  Father  whistled  and  sang  occasionally,  not  an  educated 
musician,  but  passionate  lover  of  music,  attended  opera  night  after  night, 
an  excellent  draftsman.  Father’s  sibs,  fourteen  in  number,  one  brother 
played  violin,  had  an  untrained  singing  voice ;  one  brother  fond  of  music, 
chairman  of  a  church  musical  committee,  attended  the  rendition  of  “The 
Messiah”  annually  for  many  years. 

Table  II.  Musical  data  classified :  Rho  group 


MUSICAL  CAPACITIES  MUSICAL  RATINGS 

ENVIRONMENT 


INDV. 

YOUTH 

AD. 

CREA. 

EMO. 

DAILY 

GEN. 

REF. 

SEX 

AGE 

PITCH 

INT. 

TIME 

MEMORY 

HOME 

COM. 

COM. 

EDUC. 

ACT. 

ABIL. 

REAC. 

ROLE  : 

EDUC. 

R 

IV 

12 

M 

55 

v.s. 

Sup. 

Sup. 

V.S. 

c 

c 

A 

A 

A* 

A 

A 

A 

A 

R 

IV 

13 

F 

53 

v.s. 

H.A. 

L.A. 

Ave. 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

C 

E 

A 

R 

V 

II 

F 

24 

v.s. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

C 

A 

A 

A 

C 

E 

E 

E 

A 

R 

V 

12 

F 

18 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Sup. 

c 

C 

C 

R 

V 

13 

M 

16 

V.S. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

V.S. 

A 

c 

C 

R 

III 

24 

F 

80 

Poor 

Poor 

V.P. 

— 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

A 

R 

IV 

14 

F 

49 

Poor 

L.A. 

Poor 

V.P. 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

A 

R 

IV 

15 

F 

40 

L.A. 

Ave. 

V.P. 

— 

C 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

R 

IV 

22 

F 

59 

L.A. 

Sup. 

H.A. 

v.s. 

C 

C 

E 

C 

A 

E 

A 

C 

A 

R 

V 

15 

F 

25 

V.S. 

V.S. 

Sup. 

v.s. 

A 

C 

C 

C 

C 

E 

A 

N.R. 

E 

R 

V 

14 

M 

18 

V.S. 

Ave. 

L.A. 

Sup. 

E 

E 

C 

R 

V 

16 

M 

30 

V.S. 

Poor 

V.P. 

Sup. 

C 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

E 

C 

C 

R 

V 

1 7 

F 

21 

V.S. 

Sup. 

Sup. 

Sup. 

C 

C 

C 

E 

C 

C 

C 

N.R. 

E 

R 

IV 

II 

M 

65 

V.S. 

Exc. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

E 

E 

C 

C 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A* 

R 

IV 

10 

F 

62 

L.A. 

Exc. 

Sup. 

V.S. 

A* 

A 

A 

C 

C 

C 

A 

A 

C 

R 

V 

4 

M 

34 

V.S. 

N.R. 

N.R. 

N.R. 

A 

C 

C 

A* 

C 

E 

N.R. 

N.R. 

C 

R 

V 

6 

F 

28 

V.S. 

Exc. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

A 

C 

C 

A 

C 

E 

C 

A 

A* 

R 

V 

7 

M 

37 

V.S. 

N.R. 

N.R. 

N.R. 

A 

C 

C 

A 

A 

C 

N.R. 

A 

A* 

R 

V 

5 

M 

26 

v.s. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

A 

c 

c 

C 

C 

C 

E 

C 

A 

R 

V 

3 

F 

28 

v.s. 

N.R. 

N.R. 

N.R. 

E 

E 

c 

E 

C 

E 

C 

C 

E 

R 

IV 

9 

F 

52 

Sup. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

V.S. 

A 

A 

A 

C 

E 

E 

A 

A 

A 

Classification  of  musical  activity: 

Group  A— IV  12,  11,  22;  V  7;  group  C— IV  10,  V  11,  5,  6,  4,  3,  15,  17; 
group  E — III  24;  IV  14,  15,  13,  9;  V  16;  too  young  to  classify,  V  12, 
13,  14- 

Classification  of  talent  profiles: 

Superior — IV  12,  9,  10,  11;  V  11,  13,  5,  6,  15,  17;  Excellent — IV  22; 
V  12,  14,  16;  Average — IV  13;  Poor — III  24;  IV  14,  15. 

General  comment : 

III  24  (poor  profile,  whose  consort  was  not  musical,  has  three  children, 
two  with  poor  profiles  and  one  with  average  profile;  IV  13  and  12 
(average  and  superior  charts)  have  three  children,  two  with  superior 
profiles  and  one  with  an  excellent  profile;  IV  10  and  11  (both  superior 
profiles)  have  four  children,  two  with  superior  profiles  and  two  with 
incomplete  profiles;  IV  22  (excellent  profile),  consort  not  measured, 
has  two  children,  one  with  an  excellent  profile  and  one  with  superior 
profile. 


170 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


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24;  for  the  second  row,  IV  14,  15,  13,  T2,  9,  10,  11,  22,  23  (did  not  take  the 
tests)  ;  for  the  third  row,  V  11,  12,  13,  3,  7,  5,  6,  4,  14,  15,  16,  17.  Illness  pre¬ 
vented  V  3,  7,  and  4,  from  completing  the  tests. 

Age  range,  80  years  to  16  years. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


171 


Family  Musical  History:  Rho  group 

R  V  11,  female,  Table  II,  teacher  of  violin  and  voice,  sings  contralto,  plays 
organ  and  violin. 

Sibs:  V  12,  Table  II,  sings  soprano,  plays  piano;  V  13,  Table  II  plays 
piano  at  home,  can  carry  a  tune  easily. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  IV  13,  Table  II,  plays  piano,  can  sing.  Mother’s 
five  sisters  and  brothers  sang  a  little  in  the  home  only.  Mother’s  father,  a 
minister,  unmusical,  no  musical  training  but  ambitious  for  his  children  to 
study  music  if  possible.  None  of  his  family  were  musical.  Mother’s 
father’s  mother  possessed  a  great  longing  to  express  herself  through  paint¬ 
ing.  Mother’s  mother  is  III  24  in  Table  II,  her  two  brothers  sang  in  the 
home,  one  received  pleasure  from  music;  of  four  half  brothers  and  sisters, 
one  taught  singing  school  in  two  counties.  Mother’s  mother’s  mother  painted 
with  water  colors.  Mother’s  mother’s  father  sang  bass  occasionally,  no 
music  in  his  parents’  home. 

Paternal  side:  Father,  IV  12,  Table  II,  college  teacher  of  music,  church 
organist,  second  bass  in  quartettes  and  glee  clubs,  conducted  orchestras,  glee 
clubs,  and  choirs.  One  brother,  IV  11,  Table  II,  a  clergyman,  sings  baritone, 
plays  organ.  One  sister,  IV  22,  Table  II,  teacher  of  voice  and  piano,  sings 
contralto,  choral  director.  Father’s  mother  possessed  a  peculiarly  beautiful  so¬ 
prano  voice,  remarkable  singing  range  of  easily  three  octaves,  played  church 
organ,  received  considerable  musical  training,  a  very  cultured  woman. 
Father’s  mother’s  brother  played  the  cello,  considered  an  excellent  tenor. 
Father’s  mother’s  mother,  a  leading  soprano  in  village  church  choir,  her 
family  has  the  reputation  of  being  musical.  Father’s  mother’s  father  sang 
bass  in  country  church  choir,  was  very  fond  of  music.  Father’s  father  a 
city  missionary,  sang  but  did  not  play ;  wrote  words  for  church  hymns, 
taught  music  school.  No  musical  items  reported  for  father’s  father’s  three 
brothers,  two  sisters,  and  parents. 

R  V  4,  male,  Table  II,  sings  tenor,  plays  piano,  active  in  musical  organizations. 

Sibs:  V  5,  teacher  of  piano,  plays  college  organ,  sings  first  bass;  V  6, 
sings  soprano,  plays  piano,  instructor  in  music  department;  V  7,  sings  first 
bass,  organist,  choir  master,  director  of  music  in  city  schools;  Table  II,  two 
sisters  deceased. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  IV  10,  Table  II,  sings  alto,  plays  piano.  Mother’s 
sister,  IV  9,  Table  II,  plays  piano,  can  carry  a  tune  easily.  Of  mother’s  three 
sibs  deceased,  one  brother  possessed  a  facility  in  extemporizing  like  his  father, 
but  never  studied  music  much.  Mother’s  mother  not  musically  expressive, 
but  has  great  love  for  music,  no  music  in  her  ancestry  as  far  as  known. 
Mother’s  father  a  musician,  at  an  early  age  taken  on  concert  tours  displaying 
an  unusual  talent  for  extemporizing  characteristic  sketches  on  any  subject, 
later  an  instrumental  teacher,  conductor,  composer,  director,  musical  lecturer, 
did  not  sing.  Mother’s  father’s  brother,  a  church  organist,  bass  singer,  piano 
tuner,  harmony  teacher.  Mother’s  father’s  mother,  an  oratorio  singer,  sang 
lovely  old  folk  songs  to  her  grand-children.  Mother’s  father’s  mother’s 
brother,  a  conductor  of  choir  festivals,  source  of  great  musical  inspiration 


172 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


to  his  nephew.  Mother’s  father's  father  owned  a  piano  store  and  small 
musical  library.  Mother’s  father’s  father's  father  a  choral  leader,  taught 
singing  school,  published  a  book  of  singing  exercises. 

Paternal  side:  Father  IV  n,  musical  ancestral  items  same  as  those  for 
paternal  side  of  V  n. 

R  V  15,  female,  Table  II,  plays  piano  and  cello,  arranges  ensembles  for  cellos 
and  violin,  a  soprano. 

Sib:  V  14,  Table  II,  plays  piano,  violin  by  ear,  carries  a  tune  easily. 

Maternal  side:  Mother,  IV  22,  Table  II,  sings  contralto,  teacher  of  voice 
and  piano,  choral  director.  Ancestral  musical  items  same  as  those  for  V  II. 

Paternal  side:  Father  sings  a  bit  out  of  tune,  does  not  play  an  instrument, 
no  musical  instruments  in  the  home  of  his  parents.  Father’s  father  sang  a 
little. 

R  V  16,  male,  Table  II,  plays  cello  and  alto  horn. 

Sibs:  V  17,  Table  II.  One  sister  played  the  piano.  No  musical  items  for 
one  brother  and  two  sisters  deceased. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  played  the  piano  and  the  pipe  organ,  sang  con¬ 
tralto.  Mother’s  mother  played  melodeon  and  reed  organ.  Mother’s  mother’s 
mother  not  musical.  Mother’s  mother’s  father,  bass  singer,  led  choir.  Moth¬ 
er’s  mother’s  father’s  mother  sang  in  choir.  Mother’s  father,  a  minister,  bass 
singer,  leader  of  choir. 

Paternal  side:  Father,  amateur  violinist.  No  musical  items  known  in  his 
family. 

R  V  3,  female,  Table  II,  sings  soprano. 

Sib:  One  sister  cannot  sing  on  pitch,  likes  music  but  knows  little  about  it. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  sang  soprano,  played  the  guitar.  One  of  mother’s 
two  brothers  sang  some,  mother’s  mother  sang  soprano,  mother’s  father 
sang  bass. 

Paternal  side:  Father  neither  played  nor  sang,  does  not  care  for  music, 
opposed  daughter’s  study  of  music.  Father’s  mother  not  musical.  Father’s 
father  sang,  played  the  cornet. 

Table  III.  Musical  data  classified:  Alpha  group 


MUSICAL  CAPACITIES  MUSICAL  RATINGS 

ENVIRONMENT 


INDV. 

YOUTH 

AD. 

CREA. 

EMO. 

DAILY  GEN. 

REF. 

SEX 

AGE 

PITCH 

INT. 

TIME 

MEMORY 

HOME 

COM. 

COM. 

EDUC. 

ACT. 

ABIL. 

REAC. 

ROLE  EDUC. 

A  IV 

12 

M 

47 

Exc. 

V.S. 

Ave. 

Sup. 

A 

A 

A 

A* 

A* 

A 

A 

A  A 

A  IV 

11 

F 

57 

Exc. 

Poor 

V.P. 

H.A. 

E 

C 

A 

E 

E 

E 

N.R. 

N.R.  E 

A  IV 

13 

M 

5i 

L.A. 

Ave. 

Poor 

— 

E 

C 

C 

E 

E 

E 

C 

N.R.  C 

A  IV 

10 

M 

61 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Exc. 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

C  A 

A  IV 

9 

F 

47 

Ave. 

Exc. 

L.A. 

Ave. 

C 

A 

A 

E 

E 

E 

A 

E  A 

A  V 

3 

F 

13 

V.S. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

H.A. 

C 

C 

A  V 

4 

M 

12 

V.S. 

Sup. 

V.S. 

Ave. 

C 

C 

A  III 

4 

F 

73 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Poor 

N.R. 

E 

C 

A 

E 

E 

E 

A 

N.R.  N.R. 

A  IV 

2 

M 

56 

Exc. 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Exc. 

A 

A 

A 

C 

A 

C 

A 

A  A 

A  V 

I 

F 

12 

Sup. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

Sup. 

C 

C 

A  V 

2 

M 

10 

V.S. 

V.S. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

C 

E 

I 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


i/3 


Classification  of  musical  activity: 

Group  A — IV  12,  io,  2;  group  C — None;  group  E — III  4;  IV  11,  9,  13; 
too  young  to  classify — V  1,  2,  3,  4. 

Classification  of  talent  profiles : 

Superior — IV  12;  V  1,  2,  4;  Excellent — IV  10,  2;  V  3;  Average — 
III  4;  IV  11,  9;  Poor — IV  13. 

General  comment : 

III  4,  (average  profile  consort  is  not  living,  has  one  child  with  an 
average  profile;  IV  10  and  9  (excellent  and  average  profiles)  have 
two  children  with  excellent  and  superior  profiles ;  IV  2  (excellent 
profile),  consort  not  measured,  has  two  children  with  superior  profiles. 


Fig.  3.  Talent  Pedigree  Chart:  Alpha  Group. 

Reference  numbers  from  left  to  right,  for  the  first  row,  III  3 (deceased),  4; 
for  the  second  row,  IV  12,  11,  10,  9,  13,  2,  1  (did  not  take  the  tests)  ;  for  the 
third  row,  V  3,  4,  1,  2. 

Age  range — 73  to  10  years. 


Family  Musical  History:  Alpha  group 

A  IV  2,  male,  Table  III,  plays  piano  and  cabinet  organ,  carries  tune  easily. 

Sibs :  IV  10,  sings  bass,  played  cabinet  organ  and  piano;  IV  12,  composer, 
plays  piano,  does  not  sing.  Table  III.  IV  3,  had  few  lessons  on  cornet,  but 
never  pursued  study  of  music. 

Maternal  side:  Poetical  strain.  Mother  sang  a  little  in  church,  exceedingly 
fond  of  music,  musical  temperament.  Mother’s  mother  sang  in  church  choir 
of  her  son-in-law’s  father,  II  12,  a  musician. 


174 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


Paternal  side:  Father  played  church  organ,  conducted  music  in  church 
services,  developed,  improved  and  sold  musical  instruments.  Of  father’s 
three  brothers,  III  14,  was  a  distinguished  musician,  pianist,  educator;  an¬ 
other  was  in  the  music  business.  Father’s  father,  musical  educator,  director 
of  church  music,  teacher. 

A  IV  9,  female,  Table  III,  played  piano  in  youth,  can  carry  a  tune  easily. 

Sibs:  Two  brothers  died  under  age  of  four.  Two  sisters  play  piano,  one 
of  them  sings  soprano.  Brother  profoundly  affected  by  music. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  III  4,  Table  III,  plays  no  instrument,  easy  to  carry 
a  tune.  Of  mother’s  four  sisters,  one  died  in  infancy,  one  sang  contralto, 
another  sang  soprano,  a  third  showed  some  artistic  ability  in  painting. 
Mother’s  brother  not  musically  expressive.  Mother’s  mother  and  sibs  appre¬ 
ciated  music  in  general.  One  of  mother’s  mother’s  brothers  a  linguist. 
Mother’s  father  alive  to  music  but  more  inclined  to  literature.  Music  out  of 
harmony  affected  the  family  physically,  made  them  ill.  Mother’s  father’s 
three  brothers  and  father  sang  in  the  home,  one  brother  played  the  flute. 

Paternal  side:  Father  fond  of  music,  no  training,  encouraged  music  in 
community. 

A  IV  11,  female,  Table  III,  sang  out  of  tune  at  school.  Played  piano  before 
age  14  only. 

Sibs:  One  brother  IV  13,  Table  III,  could  not  carry  a  tune,  plays  no  instru¬ 
ment.  No  musical  items  concerning  two  other  sibs. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  sang  some  as  a  girl.  Mother’s  father  could  not 
carry  a  tune,  very  skillful  with  his  hands. 

Paternal  side:  Literary  tendency.  Father,  not  especially  musical,  sang  out 
of  tune,  fond  of  music,  interested  in  literature.  Father’s  brother  sang  in 
Yale  Glee  Club. 

Classification  of  musical  activity:  [Lambda  Group] 

Group  A — III  9;  group  C — IV  8,  23;  group  E — III  10;  IV  7,  10,  11,  12, 
16,  21,  25 ;  too  young  to  classify — IV  27 ;  V  5. 

Classification  of  talent  profiles : 

Superior — III  9 ;  IV  8,  12,  23 ;  V  5 ;  excellent  IV  7,  11,  16;  average — 
III  10;  IV  10,  21,  25,  27;  Poor — None. 

General  comment : 

III  9  and  10  (superior  and  average  profiles)  have  four  children  (one 
superior,  two  excellent,  and  one  average)  ;  IV  11  and  12  (excellent  and 
superior  profiles)  have  one  child  with  a  superior  profile. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


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175 


Age  range,  66  years  to  9  years. 


176 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


Table  IV.  Musical  data  classified:  Lambda  group 


MUSICAL  CAPACITIES  MUSICAL  RATINGS 

ENVIRONMENT 


INDV. 

YOUTH 

AD. 

CREA. 

EMO.  DAILY 

GEN. 

REF. 

SEX 

AGE 

PITCH 

INT. 

TIME 

MEMORY 

HOME 

COM. 

COM. 

EDUC. 

ACT. 

ABIL. 

REAC.  ROLE 

EDUC 

L  III 

9 

M 

66 

v.s. 

Sup. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

E 

E 

A 

A* 

A 

c 

A  N.R. 

A 

L  III 

IO 

F 

62 

Ave. 

V.P. 

Poor 

H.A. 

E 

E 

C 

C 

E 

E 

E  E 

C 

L  IV 

11 

M 

39 

V.S. 

Sup. 

Poor 

Exc. 

A 

A 

C 

E 

E 

E 

N.R.  E 

A 

L  IV 

10 

M 

36 

Exc. 

Poor 

H.A. 

Exc. 

A 

A 

C 

E 

E 

E 

N.R.  E 

C 

L  IV 

8 

F 

28 

Sup. 

Sup. 

H.A. 

V.S. 

A 

A 

A 

A 

C 

E 

C  N.R. 

C 

L  IV 

7 

F 

27 

V.S. 

Poor 

Poor 

Sup. 

C 

A 

A 

C 

E 

E 

C  E 

C 

L  IV 

12 

F 

39 

Exc. 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Sup. 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

C  N.R. 

E 

L  V 

5 

M 

8 

Exc. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

E 

E 

L  III 

13 

F 

58 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

C  E 

E 

L  IV 

21 

F 

36 

Sup. 

L.A. 

Poor 

Ave. 

C 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

C  N.R. 

A 

L  IV 

23 

F 

34 

Exc. 

Sup. 

V.S. 

Sup. 

C 

E 

C 

C 

C 

E 

C  E 

A 

L  IV  25 

M 

3i 

Exc. 

Poor 

L.A. 

H.A. 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

C  N.R. 

A 

L  IV  27 

F 

17 

Exc. 

Poor 

Ave. 

Exc. 

C 

C 

L  IV 

16 

F 

49 

Exc. 

Exc. 

Poor 

Exc. 

C 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

C  N.R. 

E 

L  IV 

1 

M 

27 

Exc. 

Poor 

Ave. 

L.A. 

E 

E 

A 

E 

C 

E 

C  C 

E 

Family  Musical  History,  Lambda  Group 

L  IV  8,  female,  Table  IV,  teacher  of  piano  in  school  of  music,  soprano 
soloist. 

Sibs:  IV  7,  sings  mezzo-soprano,  plays  piano ;  IV  io,  plays  clarinet,  carries 
a  tune  and  whistles;  IV  n,  plays  cello,  carries  a  tune  easily.  Table  IV. 

Maternal  side:  Mother,  III  io,  Table  IV,  sings  soprano,  played  church 
piano  when  younger;  has  one  brother  and  four  sisters,  one  sister,  III  13,  re¬ 
corded  in  Table  IV,  one  sister,  III  24,  considered  a  professional  pianist;  one 
brother  played  piano  as  an  avocation.  No  musical  items  concerning  others. 
Mother’s  father,  a  minister,  could  not  carry  a  tune.  One  maternal  uncle 
played  piano. 

Paternal  side:  Father  III  9,  Table  IV,  choral  conductor,  conservatory 
director,  organist,  musical  educator.  Of  his  six  sibs,  three  died  in  infancy, 
no  musical  expression  noted  in  the  other  three.  No  music  heard  in  the  home 
of  his  parents. 

L  V  5,  male,  Table  IV,  studying  piano.. 

Sibs:  One  sister  and  brother  below  age  of  7,  both  singing  solos  in  Sunday 
School. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  IV  12,  Table  IV,  sings  soprano,  does  not  play. 
Mother’s  sibs,  six  in  number,  one  sister  sang  alto  and  played  the  reed  organ, 
three  other  sisters  sang  soprano  but  played  no  instrument.  IV  16,  a  sister, 
Table  IV,  sings  soprano.  All  of  them  often  joined  in  family  group  singing. 
Mother’s  father  played  the  clarinet  and  fife,  sang  tenor,  and  led  family  in 
singing.  Mother’s  mother  sang  soprano. 

Paternal  side:  Father  IV  II,  Table  IV,  sib  of  L  IV  8. 

L  IV  21,  female,  Table  IV,  plays  no  instrument,  difficult  to  carry  a  tune. 

Sibs:  IV  23,  sings  second  soprano  in  church  choir  and  choral  union, 
plays  piano ;  IV  25,  whistles  a  tune,  plays  no  instrument ;  IV  27,  alto  in  glee 
club,  studying  piano;  Table  IV.  IV  26,  not  measured,  no  musical  expression. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


177 


Maternal  side:  Mother,  III  13,  Table  IV,  at  one  time  soprano  in  church 
choir,  plays  no  instrument,  did  not  handle  the  measurements  satisfactorily. 
Mother’s  sister,  III  24,  a  professional  pianist.  Mother’s  brother  played  the 
piano  as  an  avocation.  Two  sisters  not  musical.  Mother’s  mother  con¬ 
sidered  source  of  music  in  the  family.  Mother’s  father  could  carry  a  tune 
but  not  musical. 

Paternal  side:  Father  a  minister,  could  not  carry  a  tune.  No  member  of 
his  family,  parents  and  three  sibs,  was  musical. 

L  IV  1,  male,  Table  IV,  plays  mando-cello,  choir  boy. 

Sib:  One  sister,  studied  piano  but  played  poorly. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  neither  sang  nor  played  an  instrument. 

Paternal  side:  Father  an  engineer,  neither  sang  nor  played.  No  music 
heard  in  his  parental  home. 

L  IV  1 2,  female,  Table  IV,  sang  soprano,  plays  no  instrument. 

Sibs:  IV  16,  Table  IV,  sings  soprano  in  chorus  occasionally.  All  sibs 
joined  in  singing  each  evening  at  the  parental  home.  Three  sisters  sang 
soprano,  one  sister  sang  also  and  played  the  melodeon  some. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  sang  soprano  in  the  family  singing. 

Paternal  side :  Father  played  the  flute,  clarinet  and  fife,  sang  tenor  in  the 
home. 


Fig.  5.  Talent  Pedigree  Chart:  Gamma  Group. 

Reference  numbers  from  the  left  to  the  right,  for  the  first  row,  II  9  (de¬ 
ceased),  8;  for  the  second  row,  III  2,  4,  4,  6;  for  the  third  row,  IV  2. 

Age  range,  80  years  to  9  years. 

Classification  of  musical  activity: 

Group  A — III  2,  5;  group  C — II  8;  III  4;  group  E — III  6;  too  young 
to  classify — IV  2. 


178 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


Classification  of  talent  profiles: 

Superior — III  2;  IV  2;  Excellent — III  4,  5,  6;  Average — II  8;  Poor — 
None. 

General  comment : 

II  8  (average  profile)  consort  not  living  but  would  have  ranked  A  in 
musical  activity,  has  three  children  (two  excellent  and  one  superior)  ; 
III  5  and  6  (both  excellent  profiles)  have  one  child  with  a  superior 
profile. 


Table  V.  Musical  data  classified:  Gamma  group 


MUSICAL  CAPACITIES  MUSICAL  RATINGS 

ENVIRONMENT 


INDV. 

REF. 

SEX 

AGE 

PITCH 

INT. 

TIME 

MEMORY 

YOUTH 

HOME  COM. 

AD. 

COM. 

EDUC. 

CREA. 
ACT.  ABIL. 

EMO.  DAILY 

REAC.  ROLE 

GEN. 

EDUC, 

G  III 

2  F 

53 

Sup. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

Sup. 

A 

A 

A 

A* 

A 

A 

A 

A 

E 

G  III 

4  F 

42 

Exc. 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Exc. 

A 

A 

A 

C 

C 

C 

A 

A 

E 

G  III 

5  M 

39 

Sup. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

C 

A 

A 

A 

G  III 

6  F 

33 

Exc. 

Exc. 

V.S. 

Exc. 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

N.R.  C 

E 

G  IV 
G  II 

2  F 

8  F 

9 

80 

v.s. 

Poor 

V.S. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

Exc. 

L.A. 

H.A. 

C 

C 

A 

C 

C 

C 

A  N.R. 

E 

Family  musical  history:  Gamma  group 
G  III  2,  female,  Table  V,  composer,  choral  director,  could  carry  a  tune, 
plays  piano  and  violin. 

Sibs:  III  5,  plays  piano  and  pipe  organ;  III  4,  plays  piano,  amateur 
singer.  Table  V.  One  brother  deceased. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  II  8,  Table  V,  plays  piano,  high  soprano  soloist. 
Of  mother’s  three  sisters,  two  were  almost  deaf,  never  did  much  in  music, 
one  played  the  piano  beautifully.  Of  mother’s  two  brothers,  one  not  much  in¬ 
terested  in  music,  the  other  never  played  but  sang  in  choruses.  Mother’s 
mother  sang  sorano  delightfully.  Mother’s  parents,  devoted  to  music. 

Paternal  side:  Father,  pianist,  conductor,  no  singing  voice.  Father’s  sister, 

soprano  singer,  teacher  of  voice.  Father’s  father  played  church  organ, 

sang  some,  teacher  of  his  son.  Father’s  mother  cared  for  music  but  did  not 
play  or  sing. 

G  III  6,  female,  Table  V,  plays  piano,  carries  a  tune  easily. 

Sib:  Brother  distinctly  musical,  no  training,  plays  and  sings  in  amateur 

fashion. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  played  piano,  talented  musically,  painted.  Mother’s 
sister  and  brother  not  musical. 

Paternal  side:  Father  not  musical  but  has  an  appreciative  nature.  Father’s 
three  sisters,  one  not  musical,  one  a  concert  pianist  in  youth,  one  has  a  keen 
literary  sense. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


179 


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Classification  of  musical  activity:  [Epsilon  Group] 

Group  A — III  9  30,  31;  group  C — None;  group  E — III  8,  20,  29,  32; 
IV  19,  33,  34,  36,  37,  38,  39;  too  young  to  classify— IV,  5,  35. 


i8o 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


Classification  of  talent  profiles: 

Superior— III  9,  21,  30 ,  31;  IV  l9,  33,  34,  38,  39;  Excellent— III  20,  29; 
IV  5,  37;  Average — III  32;  IV  35,  36;  Poor — III  8. 

General  comment: 

III  9  and  8  (superior  and  poor  profiles)  have  one  child  with  an  excellent 
profile;  III  21  and  20  (superior  and  excellent  profiles)  have  one  child 
with  a  superior  profile;  III  3°  and  29  (superior  and  excellent  profiles 
have  three  children  (two  superior  and  one  average)  ;  III  31  and  32 
(superior  and  average  profiles)  have  four  children  (two  superior,  one 
excellent,  and  one  average). 

Table  VI.  Musical  data  classified:  Epsilon  group 


MUSICAL  CAPACITIES  MUSICAL  RATINGS 

ENVIRONMENT 


INDV. 

YOUTH 

AD. 

CREA. 

EMO. 

DAILY 

GEN. 

REF. 

SEX 

AGE 

PITCH 

INT. 

TIME 

MEMORY 

HOME 

COM. 

COM. 

EDUC. 

ACT. 

ABIL. 

REAC. 

ROLE 

EDUC. 

E 

III 

9 

M 

45 

Exc. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

E 

III 

8 

F 

43 

L.A. 

Poor 

Poor 

L.A. 

E 

C 

A 

E 

E 

E 

C 

E 

C 

E 

IV 

5 

F 

18 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Ave. 

Exc. 

A 

A 

A 

E 

III 

21 

M 

46 

Exc. 

V.S. 

Sup. 

Sup. 

A 

A 

C 

E 

E 

E 

E 

A 

E 

III 

20 

F 

47 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Ave. 

Exc. 

C 

C 

C 

E 

E 

E 

A 

E 

C 

E 

IV 

19 

F 

21 

Exc. 

Sup. 

Sup. 

Exc. 

c 

A 

N.R. 

E 

E 

E 

C 

E 

C 

E 

III 

30 

M 

53 

V.S. 

V.S. 

V.S. 

N.R. 

A 

A 

A 

C 

A 

C 

N.R. 

E 

A* 

E 

III 

29 

F 

51 

Sup. 

Exc. 

V.P. 

Sup. 

C 

A 

C 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

IV 

33 

F 

25 

v.s. 

V.S. 

H.A. 

Sup. 

C 

A 

C 

E 

E 

E 

A 

E 

C 

E 

IV 

34 

M 

19 

Exc. 

Sup. 

L.A. 

Sup. 

C 

C 

C 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

C 

E 

IV 

35 

M 

13 

V.S. 

V.P. 

Poor 

H.A. 

C 

E 

III 

3i 

M 

55 

V.S. 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Sup. 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

E 

A 

E 

III 

32 

F 

52 

Sup. 

V.P. 

Ave. 

H.A. 

C 

A 

A 

C 

E 

E 

C 

E 

E 

E 

IV 

36 

M 

25 

H.A. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Poor 

C 

C 

N.R. 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

A 

E 

IV 

37 

F 

22 

Exc. 

Exc. 

H.A. 

Sup. 

C 

A 

N.R. 

C 

E 

C 

C 

C 

C 

E 

IV 

38 

F 

20 

V.S. 

V.S. 

Exc. 

V.S. 

C 

A 

N.R. 

C 

E 

C 

C 

C 

C 

E 

IV 

39 

M 

19 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Exc. 

Sup. 

C 

A 

N.R. 

E 

E 

E 

E 

N.R. 

C 

E  IV  5,  female,  Table  VI,  plays  piano,  could  not  carry  a  tune  until  age  of  7. 

Sibs:  None. 

Maternal  side:  Mother,  III  8,  Table  VI,  does  not  play,  impossible  to  sing. 
Mother’s  sister  and  two  brothers  not  musically  expressive.  Mother’s  mother 
played  piano  in  very  elementary  fashion.  Mother’s  father,  no  items. 

Paternal  side:  Father,  III  9,  Table  VI,  composer,  plays  piano,  bass  singer. 
Father’s  three  brothers:  III  21  plays  piano,  carries  tune  easily;  III  30,  plays 
piano,  violin,  and  trombone,  sings  second  bass;  III  31,  class  chorister,  sings 
first  bass,  plays  violin  and  any  brass  instrument;  Table  VI.  Father’s  mother, 
an  accomplished  musician,  sings  mezzo-soprano.  Of  father’s  mother’s  three 
sibs,  one  was  a  crusader  and  teacher  in  choral  singing  and  a  music  teacher 
in  public  schools.  Father’s  mother’s  parents,  neither  musically  expressive  but 
toiled  steadily  to  give  their  children  a  musical  education.  Father’s  father, 
critic  and  lover  of  music,  fiddled  some,  played  simple  melodies  on  piano.  Of 
father’s  three  sibs,  one  sister  sang  and  played  piano  some,  and  another  sister 
sang  contralto  in  church  choir  and  played  the  piano.  Father’s  parents,  no 
musical  items. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


181 


E  IV  19  female,  Table  VI,  plays  piano,  can  carry  a  tune. 

Sib:  One  brother,  no  musical  comment. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  III  20,  Table  VI,  does  not  play,  did  chorus  singing. 
Mother’s  six  sibs :  two  brothers  deceased,  one  sister  played  guitar,  another 
sister  played  the  piano.  Mother’s  mother  ill  many  years.  Mother’s  mother’s 
father,  church  organist.  Mother’s  father,  no  musical  items. 

Paternal  side:  Father  III  21,  Table  VI,  ancestral  notes  same  as  paternal 
ancestral  notes  of  E  IV  5. 

E  IV  33,  female,  Table  VI,  plays  piano,  can  carry  a  tune  but  singing 
irritates  her. 

Sibs:  IV  34,  plays  piano  and  mandolin,  sings  baritone;  IV  35,  plays  piano 
and  mandolin,  easy  to  carry  a  tune.  Table  VI. 

Maternal  side:  Mother,  III  29,  Table  VI,  plays  cabinet  organ  and  piano, 
can  sing  melodies.  Mother’s  sister  played  the  piano.  Of  mother’s  two 
brothers,  one  played  violin,  with  no  degree  of  skill,  one  played  cello,  the 
latter  more  musical  than  any  of  the  others.  Mother’s  mother  played  piano 
and  sang  in  church  choir.  Mother’s  father  very  fond  of  music,  played 
double  bass  in  family  orchestra. 

Paternal  side:  Father,  III  30,  Table  6,  ancestral  notes  same  as  paternal 
ancestral  notes  of  E  IV  5. 

E  IV  36,  male,  Table  VI,  played  mandolin  at  one  time,  difficult  to  carry  a 
tune. 

Sibs:  IV  37,  plays  piano,  carries  tune  easily,  composes  some;  IV  38, 
plays  piano,  sings  alto,  composes  some;  IV  39,  plays  violin,  sings  easily. 
Table  VI. 

Maternal  side:  Mother  III  32,  Table  VI,  plays  piano,  could  carry  a  tune. 
Mother’s  six  sibs:  one  sister,  deceased,  was  very  musical;  one  of  four 
brothers  not  musical,  one  very  musical,  one  fond  of  music  and  played  the 
cello,  one  “music  mad.”  Mother’s  mother  not  musical,  did  nothing  in  music, 
cared  little  for  opera.  Mother’s  father  played  no  instrument  but  cared  for 
music,  stimulated  and  encouraged  orchestras,  opera,  etc. 

Paternal  side:  Father,  III  30,  T^ble  VI,  ancestral  notes  same  as  paternal 
ancestral  notes  of  E  IV  5. 

Form  of  records  for  filing  in  the  Eugenics  Record 
Office  Archives,  Cold  Spring  Harbor, 

Long  Island,  N.  Y. 

The  records  for  filing  include  a  detailed  report  of  individual 
items,  general  and  musical;  pedigree  charts  of  a  family  group 
with  a  list  of  names  of  the  charted  individuals;  family  distribu¬ 
tion  blanks  of  musical  talent;  and  test  records  of  four  measures 
of  musical  capacities  for  each  individual. 

Individual  report.  This  report  is  a  typewritten  record  of 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


182 

the  results  of  an  individual  interview.  In  the  order  of  points 
mentioned,  such  a  report  contains  the  date  of  interview ;  reference 
to  chart  number,  and  to  the  family  distribution  blank  number; 
the  full  name  of  individual  reported,  with  date  and  place  of  birth; 
names  of  consort,  and  children;  names  of  parents,  brothers  and 
sisters;  general  education  including  name  of  schools,  time  spent 
in  each,  degrees  received;  chief  occupations;  vocational  and 
avocational  interests;  musical  environment  during  youth  and 
adult  life  at  home  and  in  the  community;  musical  education  and 
training;  musical  activity;  musical  appreciation;  musical  memory 
and  imagination;  family  musical  history. 

Pedigree  charts.  The  list  of  the  names  of  the  charted  individ¬ 
uals  with  the  individual  chart  reference  accompanied  each  pedi¬ 
gree  chart  as  given  above. 

Original  records  of  the  measurements.  The  original  record 
sheets  and  notes  in  each  measurement  are  filed. 

All  records  and  reports  of  this  investigation  are  considered 
confidential.  For  this  reason  the  family  and  individual  iden¬ 
tifications  are  not  available  for  publication. 

Types  of  mating  and  progeny:  based  upon 

ANCESTRAL  MUSICAL  ITEMS 

The  question  arises  as  to  whether  or  not  musical  parents  of 
musical  stock  tend  to  have  musical  children.  The  inquiry  may 
be  answered  by  a  study  of  ten  different  combinations  in  which 
four  individual  types  are  the  components,  viz.,  a  musical  person 
of  musical  stock,  a  musical  person  of  non-musical  stock,  a  non¬ 
musical  person  of  non-musical  stock,  a  non-musical  person  of 
musical  stock.  Musical  stock,  as  used  in  the  following  classi¬ 
fication,  may  signify  only  one  musical  parent,  or  both  parents 
musical,  and  may  include  musical  grandparents,  maternal,  pater¬ 
nal  or  both.  Non-musical  stock  refers  to  both  parents  as  non¬ 
musical. 

The  term  ‘musical’  is  applied  to  those  individuals  who  have 
been  or  are  musically  expressive.  A  very  definite  purpose  of  this 
study  is  an  attempt  to  identify  those  individuals  who  may  be 
musical,  but  who  have  not  found  expression  by  voice  or  instru- 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


183 


ment.  This  absence  of  expression  may  be  due  to  various  causes 
such  as  ill  health,  lack  of  opportunity,  financial  inadequacy,  phys¬ 
ical  defects,  no  time  for  study. 

In  the  classification  which  follows,  the  parents  of  many  of 
the  persons  measured  for  musical  capacities  are  not  living.  The 
musical  information  obtainable  regarding  these  parents  is  based 
upon  their  musical  expression  or  musical  interest  as  reported  by 
their  children.  Since  the  term  ‘musical,’  meaning  musical  ex¬ 
pression,  must  be  used  in  that  connection  for  all  those  not  living, 
the  same  meaning  is  applied  to  those  measured  in  order  to  be  con¬ 
sistent.  Even  though  many  discrepancies  arise  in  such  a  classi¬ 
fication,  the  available  data  furnish  examples  of  three  of  the  ten 
possible  combinations. 

Musical  person  of  musical  stock  muted  to  a  musical  person  of 
musical  stock.  There  are  five  matings  of  this  type  classified  as 
musical  with  musical  parentage.  In  two  cases  only  one  parent 
was  musical.  Of  twenty-two  children  belonging  to  these  five 
matings,  eleven  are  matured,  six  under  the  age  of  nine  years, 
four  died  in  infancy.  Ten  of  the  matured  children  are  musical, 
the  other  one  whose  normal  growth  has  been  inhibited  shows  no 
musical  tendencies. 

N on-musical  person  of  non-musical  stock  mated  to  a  non- 
musical  person  of  non-musical  stock.  Six  matings  of  this  type 
occur  comprising  twelve  individuals  with  non-musical  parentage. 
Of  twenty-seven  children,  two  died  in  infancy,  twenty-five  are 
matured  and  classed  as  non-musical.  Several  of  these  have 
studied  on  a  musical  instrument  earlier  in  life  but  the  inclination 
soon  died  and  they  have  not  been  musically  interested  since. 

Musical  person  of  musical  stock  mated  to  a  non-musical  per¬ 
son  of  non-musical  stock.  Ten  matings  of  this  type  consisting  of 
20  individuals  were  found.  The  musical  person  of  musical  stock 
in  7  matings  is  the  man  and  in  3  matings  it  is  the  woman.  Of 
25  children  varying  in  age  from  8  years  to  approximately  30 
years,  1  died  in  infancy,  5  are  too  young  for  classification,  no  in¬ 
formation  was  obtained  concerning  two  others,  6  of  the  remain¬ 
ing  are  musical  and  1 1  non-musical. 


184 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


The  remaining  eleven  matings  are  distributed  among  six  dif¬ 
ferent  type  combinations,  namely,  two  musical  persons  both  of 
non-musical  stock;  two-non-musical  persons  of  musical  stock; 
two  musical  persons,  one  of  musical  stock,  the  other  of  non¬ 
musical  stock;  two  non-musical  persons,  one  of  musical  stock,  the 
other  of  non-musical  stock;  one  non-musical  person  of  non¬ 
musical  stock  mated  to  a  musical  person  of  non-musical  stock, 
one  non-musical  person  of  musical  stock  mated  to  a  musical  per¬ 
son  of  non-musical  stock.  One  more  combination  remains,  that 
in  which  a  musical  person  of  musical  stock  mates  with  a  non¬ 
musical  person  of  musical  stock.  No  example  of  this  type 
occurred.  The  number  of  matings  classified  under  each  of  these 
type  combinations  are  too  few  and  children  of  these  matings 
too  young  for  a  sufficient  grouping  to  throw  any  light  on  the 
distribution. 

The  following  tentative  conclusions  are  similar  to  those  found 
by  Davenport  (i,  p.  48).  Those  parents  who  are  musical  and 
whose  ancestry  is  musical  on  one  or  both  sides  tend  to  have 
musical  children;  those  parents  who  are  not  musical  and  have  a 
non-musical  ancestry  on  both  sides  tend  to  have  non-musical 
children;  those  parents,  one  of  whom  is  musical  with  musical 
ancestry,  the  other  non-musical  of  non-musical  ancestry  have 
children  of  both  types. 

i 

Discussion  of  data  on  the  inheritance  of 

MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 

Family  distribution  of  capacities.  This  material  presented  in 
the  form  of  tables  for  each  capacity  differs  from  any  other 
material  on  the  inheritance  of  musical  talent  of  which  the  writer 
is  cognizant  in  that  we  are  not  measuring  what  a  person  can  do 
or  cannot  do  in  musical  expression,  but  we  are  measuring  the 
nicety,  the  accuracy,  or  the  delicacy  with  which  individuals  re¬ 
ceive  musical  impressions  through  the  channels  of  pitch,  inten¬ 
sity,  time  and  memory.  Since  we  are  unable  to  see  these  charac¬ 
teristics  or  traits,  our  only  avenue  of  approach  is  the  measure 
of  each  elementary  capacity  by  the  methods  previously  explained. 
The  most  direct  method  of  observing  family  relationships  in 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


185 


these  capacities  is  the  table  of  types  of  mating  and  the  dis¬ 
tribution  of  these  capacities  for  the  offspring  of  each  type.  By 
accumulating  all  the  ranks  from  1  to  100  into  three  groups  of 
poor  (1-29),  average  (30-69),  superior  (70-100),  six  types 
of  matings  are  represented  viz.,  Superior  x  Superior  (SxS), 
Superior  x  Average  (SxA),  Average  x  Average  (AxA),  Su¬ 
perior  x  Poor  (SxP),  Average  x  Poor  (AxP)  and  Poor  x  Poor 
(PxP).  For  each  type  the  children  are  distributed  according  to 
their  group  as  S  (sup.),  A  (ave.)  and  P  (poor). 


Table  VII. 

Sense  of  pitch 

Matings 

Offspring 

Type 

No. 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Total 

I. 

SxS 

8 

15 

1 

0 

16 

2. 

SxA 

4 

11 

0 

0 

11 

3- 

AxA 

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

4- 

SxP 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

5- 

AxP 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

6. 

PxP 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

One  parent  only 

measured. 

S  x  — 

2 

2 

1 

0 

3 

Ax  — 

1 

2 

0 

0 

2 

P  x  — 

2 

2 

0 

0 

2 

18 

matings 

35 

3 

1 

39  offspring 

Neither  parent  measured. 

Type 

unknown 

No. 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poor 

—  x  — 

1 

4 

0 

0 

-  X  — 

1 

2 

1 

0 

-  X  — 

1 

3 

0 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

2 

2 

0 

—  X  — 

1 

4 

0 

0 

5 

15 

3 

0 

Only  three  of  the  six  types  of  mating  are  represented  in  the  above  table. 
These  three  types  indicate  that  when  both  parents  were  superior  in  pitch 
discrimination  all  the  children  but  one  were  superior  in  pitch  discrimination, 
the  one  child  with  average  rank  lacked  four  units  of  having  a  superior  rank; 
when  one  parent  was  superior  and  the  other  average  all  the  children  were 
superior;  the  third  type,  A  x  A,  is  an  insignificant  mating  (only  one  child). 


i86 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


Table  VIII.  Sense 

of  intensity 

Matings 

Type 

No. 

Sup. 

Offspring 
Ave.  Poor 

Total 

i.  S  x  S 

4 

6 

0 

1 

7 

2.  S  x  A 

3 

5 

1 

0 

6 

3.  A  x  A 

I 

0 

0 

1 

1 

4.  S  x  P 

4 

5 

4 

2 

11 

5.  A  x  P 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

6.  P  x  P 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

One  parent  only 
S  x  — 

measured. 

3 

6 

1 

0 

*■? 

7 

Ax  — 

1 

1 

0 

0 

I 

P  x  — 

I 

0 

3 

0 

3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

18 

23 

10 

4 

37  offspring 

matings 

Neither  parent  measured. 
Mating 

Type 

unknown  No. 

Sup. 

Offspring 

Ave.  Poor 

—  x  — 

1 

4 

0 

0 

—  x  — 

1 

3 

0 

0 

—  x  - 

I 

2 

1 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

2 

2 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

I 

1 

2 

5 

12 

4 

2 

types  of  matings 

are  represented 

in  the  above 

table, 

three  of  which 

have  three  or  more  matings.  If  both  parents  ranked  superior  in  intensity, 
all  the  children  were  superior  except  one  who  was  poor.  If  one  parent 
was  superior  and  the  other  average  all  the  children  were  superior  except  one 
average  record.  If  one  parent  was  superior  and  the  other  poor,  the  children 
were  superior,  average,  and  poor. 


Table  IX.  Sense  of  time 


Matings 

Type 

No. 

Sup. 

Offspring 
Ave.  Poor 

Total 

1.  S  x  S 

3 

5 

0 

0 

5 

2.  S  x  A 

4 

3 

2 

I 

6 

3.  A  x  A 

1 

2 

1 

I 

4 

4.  S  x  P 

3 

O 

5 

3 

8 

5-  A  x  P 

2 

3 

0 

0 

3 

6.  P  x  P 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

One  parent  only 

S  x  — 

measured. 

1 

2 

1 

0 

3 

Ax  — 

2 

3 

1 

0 

4 

P  x  — 

2 

0 

2 

2 

4 

18 

matings 

Neither  parent  measured. 

18 

12 

7 

37  offspring 

INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


187 


Matings 

Offspring 

Type 

unknown 

No. 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poo 

—  x  — 

1 

3 

1 

0 

-  X  — 

1 

2 

I 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

0 

2 

1 

-  X  - 

1 

4 

0 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

1 

2 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

5 

10 

6 

2 

Three  of  the  five  types  represented  in  the  above  table  have  three  or  more 
matings.  When  both  parents  were  superior  all  the  children  were  superior. 
If  one  parent  was  superior  and  the  other  average,  the  offspring  were  superior, 
average,  and  poor  (lacked  two  units  of  being  average).  If  one  parent  was 
superior  and  the  other  poor  the  offspring  were  average  and  poor. 


Table  X.  Tonal  memory 


Matings 

Offspring 

Type 

No. 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Total 

1.  S  x  S 

4 

4 

1 

0 

5 

2.  S  x  A 

7 

14 

2 

1 

17 

3.  A  x  A 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

4.  S  x  P 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

5.  A  x  P 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

6.  P  x  P 

1 

0 

I 

0 

1 

One  parent  only  measured. 

S  x  — 

3 

6 

1 

0 

7 

A  x  — 

1 

3 

0 

0 

3 

16 

matings 

27 

5 

1 

33  offspring 

Neither  parent  measured. 

Mating 

Type 

unknown 

No. 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poor 

No  rec. 

—  x  — 

1 

3 

0 

0 

1 

-  X  - 

1 

3 

0 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

3 

0 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

0 

4 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

2 

2 

0 

5 

11 

6 

0 

1 

Again  the  representation 

is  accumulated 

in  three 

types, 

similar  to  those 

for  pitch.  If  both  parents 

were  superior, 

the  children  were  superior  and 

average.  If  one  parent  was  superior  and 

the  other  average,  the  children 

were  superior,  average  and 

poor. 

The  one  mating 

of  the 

type  P  x  P  is 

insignificant  (only  one  child). 


388 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


Table 

XI.  Musical 

talent  profiles 

Matings 

Offspring 

Total 

Type 

No. 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poor 

i.  S  x  S 

6 

9 

1 

0 

10 

2.  S  x  A 

5 

12 

2 

0 

14 

3.  A  x  A 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

4.  S  x  P 

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

5.  A  x  P 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

6.  P  x  P 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

One  parent  only  measured. 

S  x  — 

2 

4 

0 

0 

4 

A  x  — 

2 

3 

1 

0 

4 

P  x  — 

1 

0 

1 

2 

3 

18 

matings 

29 

6 

2 

37  offspring 

Neither  parent  measured. 

Mating 

Offspring 

Type 

unknown 

No. 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poor 

—  x  — 

1 

4 

0 

0 

-  X  — 

1 

3 

0 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

3 

0 

0 

-  X  - 

1 

3 

1 

0 

—  X  - 

1 

1 

3 

0 

5 

14 

4 

0 

The  above  table  of  family  distribution  of  talent  profiles  shows  that  if  both 
parents  had  superior  talent  profiles  all  their  children  had  superior  talent  pro¬ 
files  with  the  exception  of  one  average  profile ;  if  one  parent  had  a  superior 
talent  profile  and  the  other  an  average  profile,  all  the  children  had  superior 
talent  profiles  with  the  exception  of  two  average  profiles. 

Method  of  inheritance.  Statements  of  apparent  indications 
of  the  method  of  inheritance  of  each  capacity  are  necessarily  ten¬ 
tative  for  the  following  reasons :  first,  the  paucity  of  data  which 
is  evidenced  by  the  few  matings  for  specific  types  with  an  aver¬ 
age  of  two  offspring  for  each  mating ;  second,  the  group  studied 
is  select,  shown  by  the  accumulation  of  data  within  the  upper 
ranks  so  that  poor  ranks  are  relatively  few ;  third,  the  generation 
scope  is  limited,  most  of  the  records  are  persons  in  only  two 
generations  of  a  family  group.  In  spite  of  these  limitations,  the 
distribution  of  the  offspring  of  those  types  of  mating  represented 
by  the  present  data  suggests  segregation  of  superior  capacity 
from  average  and  poor  capacities.  In  those  tables  where  ex¬ 
amples  of  the  average  x  average  type  of  mating  occur  the  off¬ 
spring,  have  superior,  average,  and  poor  capacities,  which  sug¬ 
gests  an  independent  transmission  of  factors  determining  the 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


189 


different  capacities.  There  are  indications  of  the  superior 
capacity  dominating  over  the  average  and  poor  capacities  of 
the  same  measure.  The  inheritance  of  musical  capacities  seems, 
indeed,  to  follow  Mendelian  principles  but  the  method  of  in¬ 
heritance  is  so  complex  that  it  is  impossible  now  to  state  how 
many  factors  may  be  present. 

Presence  or  absence  of  determiner.  We  are  not  yet  in  position 
to  say  anything  authoritative  about  the  relation  of  these  capacities 
to  specific  determiners,  and  the  data  here  available  are  not  ad¬ 
equate  for  any  elaboration  in  that  direction;  but  it  is  interesting 
to  anticipate  what  might  be  shown  if  certain  assumptions  were 
valid. 

In  order  to  present  the  relation  between  parents  and  offspring 
in  terms  of  the  assumed  presence  and  absence  of  a  representative 
determiner  for  the  superior  capacity  in  each  measure,  the  presence 
of  a  determiner  may  be  represented  by  a  large  letter  as  P  (Pitch), 
I  (intensity),  T  (time),  and  M  (memory)  respectively,  with  the 
corresponding  small  letter  representing  the  absence  of  such  a 
determiner  so  that  hypothetical  gametic  formulae  for  the  su¬ 
perior,  average,  and  poor  capacities  may  be  represented  in  the 
case  of  pitch  by  PP,  Pp,  and  pp;  in  the  case  of  intensity  by 
II,  Ii,  and  ii;  in  the  case  of  time  by  TT,  Tt,  and  tt;  in  the  case 
of  memory  by  MM,  Mm,  and  mm. 


Table  XII.  Pitch 


Matings 

Offspring 

Type 

No. 

Realized 

Expected 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poor 

I. 

PP  x  PP 

8 

15 

I 

0 

All 

PP 

2. 

PP  X  Pp 

4 

11 

0 

0 

PP  -f-  V2  Pp 

3- 

Pp  X  Pp 

1 

1 

0 

0 

14 

pp  +  *4  pp  +  yA  pp 

4- 

PP  x  p  p 

0 

0 

0 

0 

All  Pp 

5. 

Pp  x  p  p 

0 

0 

0 

0 

14  pp  +  54  PP 

6. 

PP  x  pp 

0 

0 

0 

0 

All  pp 

Table 

XIII. 

Intensity 

Matings 

Offspring 

Type 

No. 

Realized 

Expected 

Sup. 

Ave. 

Poor 

1. 

II  x  II 

4 

6 

0 

I 

All 

II 

2. 

II  x  Ii 

3 

5 

1 

0 

II  +  ^4  Ii 

3- 

Ii  x  Ii 

1 

0 

0 

I 

14 

II  +  54  Ii  -f  J4  ii 

4- 

II  x  ii 

4 

5 

4 

2 

All  Ii 

5- 

Ii  x  ii 

I 

0 

1 

0 

14  Ii  +  14  h 

6. 

i  i  x  i  i 

0 

0 

0 

0 

All  ii 

190 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


Matings 

Type  No. 

1.  TT  x  TT  3 

2.  TT  x  Tt  4 

3.  Tt  x  Tt  1 

4.  TT  x  t  t  3 

5.  Tt  x  t  t  2 

6.  t  t  x  t  t  o 


Matings 

Type  No. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 


MM  x  MM 
MM  x  Mm 
Mm  x  Mm 
MM  x  mm 
Mm  x  mm 
mm  x  m m 


4 

7 

o 

0 

o 

1 


Table  XIV.  Time 


Offspring 

Realized 

Sup.  Ave.  Poor 
500 
3  2  1 

2  1  1 

0  5  3 

300 
000 


Expected 
All  TT 

54  TT  +  54  Tt 
54  TT  +  H  Tt  +  yA  tt 
All  Tt 

$4  Tt  +  J4  tt 

All  tt 


Table  XV. 

Offspring 

Realized 

Sup.  Ave.  Poor 

410 
14  2  1 

000 
000 
000 
010 


Expected 
All  MM 

54  MM  +  54  Mm 
54  MM  +  54  Mm  4-  54  01m 
All  Mm 

54  Mm  -f-  54  mm 
All  mm 


The  cause  of  a  superior  capacity  in  any  or  all  these  measures 
is  not  definitely  known.  Up  to  the  present  time  we  have  assumed 
that  an  individual  with  superior  pitch  discrimination  possessed 
a  very  sensitive  ear  for  discrimniatng  pitches  and  that  one  with 
poor  pitch  discrimination  did  not  possess  a  sensitive  ear  in  that 
respect.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  an  individual  with 
poor  pitch  discrimination  has  a  defective  ear,  in  fact  we  are  in¬ 
clined  to  regard  this  as  we  would  short  stature  contrasted  with 
tall  stature  or  blue  eyes  in  contrast  with  brown  eyes,  merely  a 
recognized  individual  difference  in  degree.  The  cause  of  this 
individual  variation  may  be  due  to  certain  central  factors  as  well 
as  structural  and  functional  differences  in  the  inner  ear  me¬ 
chanism.  This  raises  the  question  as  to  whether  or  not  a  single 
factor  might  determine  superior  capacity. 


Problem  of  different  age  groups 

Recognized  sources  of  error  in  dealing  with  individuals  rang¬ 
ing  in  age  from  8  to  80  years  consist  first,  in  the  fact  that  for 
adults  of  all  ages  we  have  but  one  percentile  rank  table  for  each 
capacity;  second,  any  capacity  may  or  may  not  be  affected  by 
old  age;  third,  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  reliable  measure  of  in¬ 
dividual  capacity  may  increase  with  age.  To  what  extent  these 
sources  of  error  exist  we  do  not  know. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES  191 

The  curves  below  show  the  variation  of  this  group  in  rank  for 
each  capacity  throughout  the  age  range.  With  a  greater  number 
of  cases  these  curves  would  be  smooth;  but,  even  so,  a  decrease 
in  rank  would  probably  accompany  any  increase  in  age  beyond 
a  certain  point. 


Even  though  this  group  is  a  selected  one,  small  in  number, 
variable  from  one  extreme  to  the  other,  in  age,  in  musical  ca¬ 
pacities,  in  musical  activities,  etc.,  we  may  be  able  to  lessen  the 
sources  of  error  stated  above,  first,  by  establishing  at  least  two 
percentile  ranks  for  those  above  the  age  of  40  years,  one  for  an 
age  span  of  approximately  45  to  65  years,  the  other  for  all  above 
65  years;  second,  by  a  study  of  the  variation  in  musical  capa¬ 
cities  with  increase  in  age  by  measuring  the  same  individuals  at 
successive  periods  of  five  years  or  less. 

Table  XVI.  The  measures  of  musical  capacities 
for  all  those  above  the  age  of  65 


Indiv. 

Age 

Pitch 

Rank 

Intensity 

Rank 

Time 

Rank 

Memory 

Rank 

I 

66 

99 

95 

87 

83 

2 

67 

40 

7 

100 

23 

3 

73 

84 

58 

24 

No  record 

4 

80 

11 

19 

4 

No  rank 

5 

80 

18 

87 

73 

65 

From  the  supplementary  data,  individuals  1  and  5  would  be  considered 
musical,  individuals  2,  3,  and  4  non-musical.  This  table  indicates  that  we 
may  obtain  reliable  measurements  from  a  person  66  years  of  age,  but  it  does 
not  affrm  or  deny  the  reliability  of  the  measurements  obtained  by  those  above 
the  age  of  66.  In  the  two  cases  of  persons  80  years  of  age,  number  4  is  not 
musical,  hence  her  low  record  may  be  reasonably  reliable;  number  5  is 
musical,  all  ranks  excepting  pitch  for  this  individual  are  high  average  or 
above.  Uncontrollable  subjective  disturbances  entered  into  the  pitch  measure- 


192 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


ment  for  individual  5,  so  that  it  may  not  represent  her  ultimate  capacity  in 
pitch.  The  writer  would  advise  giving  the  measurements  to  all  capable 
members  of  a  family  regardless  of  age. 

Relation  of  musical  capacities  to 

SUPPLEMENTARY  DATA 

For  this  particular  group  of  persons  a  standard  classification 
of  supplementary  factors  has  been  proposed  in  a  previous  section. 
These  supplementary  factors  include  (1)  musical  environment 
during  childhood  in  the  home  and  (2)  in  the  community,  (3) 
musical  education  and  training,  (4)  musical  activity,  (5) 
emotional  experiences  resulting  from  musical  stimulation,  (6) 
role  of  music  in  daily  thought  (7)  creative  musical  expres¬ 
sion,  (8)  general  non-musical  education  beyond  high  school. 
The  triple  classification  for  each  factor  has  been  indicated  by  A, 
the  highest  rating ;  C,  the  middle  rating ;  and  E,  the  lowest  rating. 
The  talent  profiles  have  been  previously  classified  into  superior, 
excellent,  average  and  poor.  In  terms  of  these  two  classifica¬ 
tions  the  correlation  of  the  talent  profiles  with  each  of  the  sup¬ 
plementary  factors  will  be  shown  in  the  following  tables. 


Table  XVII.  Talent  profiles  and  musical  environment 
in  the  home  during  childhood 

Musical  capacities 


-*->  V 

c 

Sup. 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Total 

_ 
c«  g 

A 

13 

8 

1 

0 

22 

•  -  C 

<2  0 

w 

C 

E 

13 

5 

10 

5 

9 

7 

1 

4 

33 

21 

Total 

3i 

23 

1 7 

5 

76  cases 

A  distribution  is  presented  in  Table  XVII  showing  the  number  of  in¬ 
dividuals  falling  in  the  upper,  middle  and  lower  groups  of  musical  environ¬ 
ment  in  the  home  during  childhood,  and  their  relative  grouping  with  regard 
to  classification  of  the  talent  profiles  into  superior,  excellent,  average,  and 
poor.  Fifty-nine  per  cent  of  those  who  were  in  an  A  environment  at  home 
during  childhood  have  superior  talent  profiles.  Thirty-six  per  cent  have 
excellent  talent  profiles,  and  five  per  cent  average  talent  profiles.  Of  those 
with  an  E  environment,  twenty-four  per  cent  have  superior  and  excellent 
profiles  respectively,  thirty-three  per  cent  average  and  nineteen  per  cent  poor 
profiles.  If  the  relation  between  these  two  corresponded  exactly  all  those  with 
A  environment  at  home  would  have  superior  talent  profiles,  all  those  with  E 
environment  at  home  would  have  poor  talent  profiles.  As  it  is  nearly  half  of 
those  with  an  E  environment  at  home  are  excellent  or  above  and  the  rest  are 
average  or  below. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


193 


Table  XVIII.  Talent  profiles  and  musical 
education  and  training 


bo 
a  c 
73.2  c 

u  •— 

•a  S  2 

rtj 


A 

C 

E 


Sup. 

9 

8 

8 

25 


Musical  capacities 
Exc.  Ave. 

3  o 

6  5 

8  9 


Poor 

o 

o 

5 


Total 

12 

19 

30 


1 7  14  5  61  cases 

Twenty  per  cent  of  the  cases  are  persons  with  a  superior  musical  education 
and  training.  All  of  these  have  excellent  and  superior  profiles.  Fifty  per 
cent  of  the  cases  have  had  little  or  no  musical  education  and  training.  They 
represent  all  four  degrees  of  musical  talents  with  twenty-six  per  cent  of 
them  excellent  and  superior.  At  least  one-fourth  are  deserving  of  a  musical 
education  and  they  had  none.  Here  again  expectation  is  verified,  superior 
capacities  are  not  limited  to  those  with  superior  musical  training.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  persons  with  superior  capacities  who  have  had  no  musical  education 
is  the  same  as  those  with  superior  capacities  who-  have  had  superior  musical 
education. 

All  those  with  poor  capacities  have  had  little  or  no  musical  training. 


Table  XIX.  Talent  profiles  and  general  education 

Musical  capacities 


c 

73.2 

A 

Sup. 

14 

Exc. 

7 

Ave. 

5 

Poor 

2 

Total 

28 

i— . 

<V  CS 

C 

7 

5 

3 

2 

1 7 

C  0 

t»  3 

E 

4 

5 

6 

1 

16 

w 

— 

— 

— 

— 

25 

17 

14 

5 

61  cases 

General  education  refers  to  the  education  received  after  graduation  from 
high  school,  although  the  E  group  includes  a  few  with  incomplete  high 
school  education.  Of  those  with  little  or  no  education  beyond  high  school 
twenty-five  per  cent  made  superior  records  in  the  talent  measurements,  fifty- 
six  per  cent  rank  excellent  and  above.  Forty  per  cent  of  those  with  poor 
talents  rate  in  the  highest  class  of  general  education;  sixteen  per  cent  of 
the  persons  with  superior  talents  rate  in  the  lowest  educational  group.  This 
table  shows  no  indication  of  those  with  the  highest  talent  records  to  be  in  the 
group  of  the  best  education.  In  fact,  the  tables  XVII,  XVIII,  XIX  show 
little  tendency  of  correlation  between  the  factors  presented. 


Table  XX. 

Talent  profiles  and  musical  activity 

Musical  capacities 

Sup. 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Total 

CTj 

A 

8 

5 

0 

0 

13 

.2  > 

C 

8 

1 

3 

0 

12 

c/1  •  «-* 

.  u 

E 

9 

11 

12 

5 

37 

— 

— 

— 

62 

25 

1 7 

15 

5 

cases 

Thirty 

-six 

per 

cent  of 

those  who  are 

superior  in 

the  musical  capacities 

are  not 

actively 

participating  in  musical 

expression. 

All  those 

who 

have 

194 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


been  or  are  the  most  active  in  musical  expression  have  talent  profiles  rank¬ 
ing  excellent  or  above.  None  of  the  five  persons  with  poor  capacities  have 
expressed  themselves  in  music.  These  data  show  that  fifty-six  per  cent  of 
those  persons  who  are  excellent  and  above  in  their  capacities  of  tonal  recep¬ 
tivity  are  not  engaged  in  musical  expression,  vocal  or  instrumental. 

The  persons  rated  in  musical  activity  include  all  those  twenty 
years  of  age  and  above.  Sixty-seven  per  cent,  of  these  have 
superior  and  excellent  charts.  Of  this  superior  group  in  musical 
capacities,  forty-seven  per  cent,  are  rated  E  in  musical  activity. 
There  are  interesting  facts  noted  in  the  supplementary  data  for 
these  individuals  which  may  account  in  part  for  their  lack  of 
participation  in  musical  expression.  In  general,  they  are  in¬ 
terested  in  music,  all  but  one  sing,  play,  or  do  both,  some  have 
had  no  opportunity  to  study,  others  have  been  nervous  and  ill, 
several  are  young  mothers,  or  business  men  who  have  no  time 
for  it,  and  a  few  are  studying  piano  and  voice. 

According  to  the  data  in  Table  XX  the  four  measurements  of 
musical  capacities  identify  all  those  who  rate  highest  in  musical 
activity  in  addition  to  some  who  are  not  active  in  music.  If  we 
should  be  able  to  predict  approximately  by  means  of  these  four 
measurements  those  in  the  younger  generation  who  will  prob¬ 
ably  rate  in  the  upper  group  of  musical  activity  we  will  have 
advanced  an  important  step  in  the  direction  of  vocational  guid¬ 
ance  in  music. 

Table  XXI.  Talent  profiles  and  creative  musical  expression 

Musical  capacities 


c 

Sup. 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Total 

o  —h  o 

>  ctf'TT 

A 

7 

i 

o 

0 

8 

•  rj  00 

— '  .  v-t 

aS  W2  <u 

C 

6 

4 

i 

0 

ii 

<u  s  £ 

E 

12 

12 

15 

r* 

5 

44 

til 

25 

17 

16 

5 

63  cases 

The  phrase  “creative  musical  expression”  includes  improvisation  and  com¬ 
position.  Such  a  rating  excludes  many  who  hear  new  melodies  but  never 
impart  them ;  it  excludes  those  who  “seek  the  woods  and  make  the  organ 
improvise”  until  they  are  satisfied,  those  who  invariably  hear  a  melody  (new 
to  them)  when  reading  poetry,  those  who  are  conscious  of  a  previously 
unheard  of  melody  at  times  of  great  exaltation. 

This  relation  is  similar  to  the  last  one  in  that  we  are  comparing  impression 
with  expression.  All  those  who  are  very  expressive  in  musical  creations 
are  excellent  and  superior  in  the  musical  capacities  but  all  those  who  are 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


195 


excellent  and  superior  in  the  musical  capacities  are  not  improvisers  or  com¬ 
posers.  Creative  musical  expression  is  not  common  in  this  group.  No 
doubt  many  in  the  E  rating  possess  creative  power  but  a  standard  of  guidance 
for  rating  of  creative  capacity  is  unstable  at  present. 

Table  XXII.  Talent  profiles  and  emotional  experiences 
Resulting  from  musical  stimulation 

Musical  capacities 


to 

<y 

Sup. 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Total 

rt 

G 

0 

G 

A 

12 

9 

3 

0 

24 

O 

•  iH 
-4— > 

<L> 

U 

C 

8 

4 

6 

2 

20 

O 

r— 

<D 

G. 

E 

8 

2 

4 

3 

12 

G 

W 

X 

w 

No 

record  1 

2 

2 

0 

5 

24 

15 

17 

24 

61 

The  A  group  includes  those  who  have  experienced  stirring  emotional  reac¬ 
tions  to  music  which  are  noticeably  sustained  or  felt  at  various  times. 

Those  who  have  experienced  emotional  states  to  the  greatest  degree  accom¬ 
panying  musical  stimulation  are  average  and  above  in  the  musical  capacities, 
with  fifty  per  cent  superior.  Only  twelve  and  one-half  per  cent  of  those 
superior  in  musical  capacities  have  not  experienced  or  do  not  recall  emoti  mal 
reactions  to  music.  Not  any  of  those  with  poor  talent  profiles  have  been 
especially  “moved  by  music.” 


Table  XXIII.  Talent  profiles  and  role  of  music  in 

daily  life 

Musical  capacities 


O) 

Sup. 

Exc. 

Ave. 

Poor 

Total 

. .  .  G  1 

— —  •*-! 

U  ^ 

<L)  ' 

A 

C 

8 

2 

4 

6 

0 

1 

0 

0 

12 

9 

‘O  G  — 

E 

10 

6 

9 

4 

29 

Q 

No  record 

5 

1 

5 

1 

12 

25 

17 

15 

5 

62 

Here  again  all  those  in  the  A  class  have  excellent  and  superior  talent 
profiles.  '  Those  in  the  E  class  have  all  four  grades  of  grouped  capacities : 
no  consistent  positive  correlation  is  evident. 

Comparison  of  highest  five  per  cent,  and  lowest 

FIVE  PER  CENT. 

The  lowest  5%  was  selected  on  the  basis  of  the  lowest  talent 
profiles.  Only  five  poor  talent  profiles  occur  in  the  whole 
group.  Since  5%  of  the  group  is  approximately  four  persons, 
the  one  poor  profile  for  a  woman  80  years  old  was  excluded  leav¬ 
ing  four  poor  talent  profiles  for  persons  ranging  in  age  from 


196 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


40  years  to  52  years.  The  four  best  talent  profiles  were  selected 
from  those  40  years  of  age  or  older  so  as  to  retain  a  similarity  in 
age  span  between  the  two  groups.  These  two  groups  are  an  ex¬ 
treme  contrast  in  their  talent  profiles  as  shown  below. 


Highest  5% 


Lowest  5% 


Fig.  8.  Highest  5  percent,  and 


□  o 


I 

i 

J 

Lx. 

— 

i 

0  H 

lowest  5  percent,  talent  profiles. 


Two  of  the  superior  group  are  brothers  and  two  of  the  poor 
group  are  sisters.  Three  of  the  superior  group  are  propositi. 
All  of  the  poor  group  were  included  in  the  study  because  they 
were  connected  by  marriage  into  the  musical  families  investi¬ 
gated.  In  the  superior  group  no  rank  occurs  below  eighty-six 
per  cent.  In  the  poor  group  no  rank  occurs  above  fifty-eight  per 
cent.  In  the  latter  group  'no  rank’  in  memory  means  that  they 
tried  the  test  but  were  baffled  by  it.  The  pitch  thresholds  for 
the  superior  group  extend  from  0.4  d.v.  to  1.6  d.v.,  for  the  poor 
group  from  5.4  d.v.  to  9.7  d.v. 

The  significance  of  these  four  capacities  for  the  purpose  of 
identifying  experimentally  musical  ability  or  lack  of  musical 
ability  may  be  realized  by  a  direct  comparison  of  these  talent 
profiles  with  the  supplementary  musical  data.  For  this  reason 
the  writer  is  presenting  such  a  comparison  in  as  condensed  a  form 
as  possible,  reporting  directly  from  the  individual  papers. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


19  7 


I.  Musical  Environment  in  the  Home  During  Childhood 

Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Very  unusual.  Mother  a  musician.  Members  of  family  singing  and 
playing  together.  Many  musical  friends  and  professionals  brought  to  the 
home. 

2.  Had  only  the  opportunities  of  a  musical  family  possessing  a  piano  and 
love  for  music.  Piano,  flute,  and  violin  in  the  home. 

3.  Very  remarkable.  Father  a  concert  artist.  Mother  an  amateur  singer. 
Artists  came  to  the  home.  Piano  and  violin  in  home. 

4.  Reed  organ  and  piano  in  the  home.  Mother  played  the  seraphine. 
Choir  rehearsal  held  in  the  home.  Cello,  piano  and  flute  the  only  instru¬ 
ments. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  Almost  no  music  heard  at  home.  Hymns  sung  at  morning  prayer. 
Melodeon  in  home,  later  a  piano. 

2.  Practically  no  music  in  the  home.  No  one  played  or  sang  much.  Vic- 
trola  and  piano  the  only  instruments. 

3.  Piano  in  the  home.  Sisters  played  some. 

4.  Mother  played  piano  in  very  elementary  way. 

II.  Musical  environment  in  the  community  during  youth 

Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Attended  city  concerts  regularly  during  youth. 

2.  Opportunities  to  hear  good  music  in  community  began  with  academic 
college  days. 

3.  Hear  city  concerts,  and  splendid  music  in  city  church. 

4.  Heard  city  music  festivals  during  youth. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  Very  poor  opportunity  to  hear  music  in  the  community,  nothing  except 
country  church  music  until  the  age  of  13. 

2.  No  report. 

3.  Heard  good  church  music. 

4.  During  later  youth  heard  good  music  in  cities  with  tremendous  en¬ 
joyment. 

III.  Effort  exerted  to  gain  or  avoid  musical  environment 

Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Made  attempt  to  get  out  of  musical  environment  to  extent  of  becoming 
bored  with  musical  people. 

2.  No  report. 

3.  Musical  environment  thrust  upon  her. 

4.  No  effort  exerted  to  avoid  musical  environment. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  No  effort  made  to  gain  a  musical  environment. 

2.  No  report. 

3.  Desired  to  keep  away  from  music  when  young. 

4.  No  report. 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


198 

IV.  Musical  encouragement  in  the  home 
Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Mother  principally  encouraged  music  study. 

2.  Received  every  encouragement  from  both  parents. 

3.  Father’s  pride  and  interest  were  incentives  for  study  aided  by  mother’s 
great  sympathy  and  keen  judgment. 

4.  Excellent  encouragement  from  both  parents  who  expected  him  to  study. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

There  was  no  specific  report  recorded  for  those  of  the  poor  talent  group 
but  all  of  them  came  from  homes  where  music  was  not  essential  and  in  a 
few  cases  no  opportunity  for  study  consequently  parental  encouragement  was 
lacking. 

V.  Musical  education 
Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Two  years  of  voice  study  in  the  city.  Piano  study  from  age  6  until 
college  entrance.  Major  in  music  in  Eastern  University.  Harmony,  theory, 
orchestration  later. 

2.  No  voice  study.  1  year  piano  and  organ.  Summer  study  in  theory,  har¬ 
mony,  piano,  and  organ. 

3.  One  year  voice  study.  10  years  piano  study;  6  years  violin;  2  years 
study  abroad  with  violin,  harmony,  counterpoint,  orchestration. 

4.  Four  years’  voice  with  two  valuable  teachers.  10  or  12  years  piano 
with  two  teachers.  Organ  study  began  in  early  youth  and  continued  10  years 
with  three  very  fine  teachers.  4  years  harmony  and  composition  with  three 
teachers.  History  of  music  and  theory  of  church  music.  One-half  year 
orchestration. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  No  musical  education. 

2.  No  musical  education. 

3.  School  music  2  years  once  a  week. 

4.  No  voice  study.  6  years  piano  without  much  results. 

VI.  Musical  activity 
Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Recognized  composer.  Improvises  on  piano  readily.  Bass  singer  3 
years  in  university  glee  club.  Accompanist  for  concert  singers. 

2.  Improvises  as  an  expression  of  thoughts  and  feelings.  Composes  hymns 
and  children’s  songs.  Student  of  folk  songs.  Musical  lecturer.  Baritone 
in  quartets.  His  real  instrument  is  the  church  organ. 

3.  Composer  of  established  reputation.  Often  improvises  at  piano.  Semi¬ 
public  appearances  as  director  of  choruses,  as  an  accompanist.  Always  able 
to  carry  a  tune  but  never  sang  much. 

4.  Pipe-organist,  church  musician.  Improvises  freely.  Written  mono¬ 
graphs  on  music.  Second  bass  in  quartets,  choruses,  glee  clubs,  choirs. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


199 


Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  Never  has  sung  much  but  could  teach  school  songs  with  aid  of  a  pupil. 
Does  not  play. 

2.  Sang  solo  at  school  when  6  years  old,  and  that  was  the  last.  Does  not 
play  any  instrument. 

3.  Could  not  carry  a  tune.  Made  no  public  appearance  in  music. 

4.  Never  goes  near  a  piano.  Impossible  to  carry  a  tune  even  now. 

« 

VII.  Earliest  activity  in  music 
Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  First  compositions  at  age  of  12,  some  in  print  6  years  later. 

2.  When  a  child  played  baritone  horn  in  brass  band.  Age  9  led  altos  in 
a  chorus  at  musical  convention. 

3.  Began  to  compose  at  age  of  12,  wrote  string  quartet. 

4.  Recorded  an  original  melody  at  age  of  6.  One  year  later  wrote  a  piece 
played  by  village  band.  Played  church  organ  since  age  of  16. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 
Data  reported  under  musical  activity  preceding. 

VIII.  Role  of  music  in  daily  life 
Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Music  enters  into  life  every  day  in  some  way.  Playing  for  self  is  part 
of  daily  diet.  Daily  relaxation  from  business. 

2.  Music  daily  is  a  great  source  of  courage,  a  spiritual  toni:.  Used  as  a 
study  rather  than  for  entertainment. 

3.  No  report. 

4.  Music  daily  is  absolutely  paramount. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  Music  not  in  mind  much  daily. 

2.  Many  days  and  no  music  heard  at  all. 

3.  No  report. 

4.  No  report. 

IX.  Desire  to  have  studied  or  heard  good  music 

Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Desire  to  study  took  him  abroad. 

2.  Always  desired  to  play  and  sing.  Never  a  distressing  desire  to  hear 
good  music  unfulfilled.  Goes  to  concerts  rarely. 

3.  Experienced  great  hunger  one  winter  when  voluntarily  giving  up  sym¬ 
phonies. 

4.  If  he  cannot  attend  a  concert  he  sits  down  and  thinks  it  out. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  Wanted  to  study  at  age  of  sixteen  but  could  not.  Never  puts  herself 
out  to  attend  concerts. 

2.  Always  wished  she  had  studied  music.  Has  longed  to  hear  special 
singers  when  she  could  not. 


200 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


3.  Desired  to  keep  away  from  music  when  young. 

b.  No  desire  to  study  music.  When  lonely  would  like  to  go  to  a  concert. 

X.  Memory  and  Imagination 

Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Memory  is  note  association.  Pieces  he  knew  at  age  of  twelve  are  “in 
his  fingers  now.”  Forgets  memorized  selections  unless  playing  them  con¬ 
stantly.  Creative  imagination  evidenced  in  compositions. 

2.  Auditory  imagery  most  important  in  memory.  Touch  in  finger  tips 
helps.  Visualization  of  keyboard  great  help  in  playing  from  memory.  Always 
hearing  music  when  awake.  Improvisations  and  compositions  indicate  creative 
imagination. 

3.  Sits  away  from  piano  in  trying  to  memorize  and  tries  to  get  it  in  her 
eyes.  If  retained  it  will  be  visual.  Often  recalls  things  with  hands  that 
cannot  be  seen  with  eyes.  When  composing  things  heard  in  “mind’s  ear” 
before  hearing  them  on  piano. 

4.  Very  easy  to  memorize.  Wholly  auditory.  Neither  notation  nor  key¬ 
board  helps.  Always  something  musical  going  on  in  his  mind.  Mental 
hearing  comes  first  in  all  musical  processes.  Purely  creative  in  all  his  work. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

Those  in  this  group  have  no  experience  in  memorizing  music. 

1.  Thought  and  rhythm  easier  to  remember  than  words.  “I  see  rather 
than  hear.”  Could  sing  in  her  mind  and  not  in  her  voice. 

2.  Takes  a  long  time  to  memorize.  Always  sees  words  on  a  page.  Can 
remember  words  more  easily  by  writing  them  down. 

3.  Remembers  things  that  interest  him.  Never  sees  a  printed  word  in 
memory.  Music  often  brings  past  thoughts  to  mind. 

4.  Creative  imagination  exercised  with  color  rather  than  sound. 

XI.  Evidences  of  manual  skill 

Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Not  especially  adept  in  mechanics. 

2.  Hates  tools,  no  mechanical  skill.  Sketches  with  pen  and  ink. 

3.  Facility  in  turning  things  out  in  carpentry  and  sewing. 

4.  Apparent  skill  and  good  eye  in  occupations  of  hand.  Uses  tools  and 
pencil  with  accuracy. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  Does  manual  tasks  easily. 

2.  Skillful  at  sewing,  lace  and  jewelry  making. 

3.  “Mechanical  skill  inherited  from  grandfather.” 

4.  No  report. 

XII.  Attitude  toward  mathematics 

Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Liked  mathematics  in  a  pictorial  way. 

2.  Mathematics  perfectly  easy. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


201 


3.  Absolutely  no  interest  in  mathematics.  Had  no  mathematical  gift. 

4.  Geometry  interested  especially. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  Natural  aptitude  for  mathematics. 

2.  Mathematics  very  difficult.  Detests  it. 

3.  No  report. 

4.  Liked  mathematics  very  well. 

XIII.  Interest  in  other  arts 
Superior  talent  profile  group 

1.  Promotion  of  arts.  Constantly  searching  in  poetry.  An  untrained  eye 
for  color.  Dancing  never  a  necessary  pleasure. 

2.  Cares  for  music  of  poetry.  No  interest  in  dancing,  sense  of  rhythm  not 
physical. 

3.  Loves  the  sounds  in  poems.  Enjoys  dancing  very  little. 

4.  Poetry  not  a  necessary  pleasure.  Very  little  interest  in  dancing.  Form 
of  paintings  interest  but  color  means  little.  Loves  to  follow  form  in  archi¬ 
tecture. 

Poor  talent  profile  group 

1.  Recreation  and  inspiration  in  poetry.  Longs  some  to  dance,  likes  the 
activity  of  it.  Longed  to  work  with  color  and  form  in  painting,  passionately 
fond  of  it. 

2.  Great  lover  of  poetry.  Some  interest  in  dancing,  finds  it  hard  to  do. 
Interest  in  ceramics. 

3.  Appreciates  poetry  now  more  than  ever.  Not  interested  in  the  dance, 
poor  on  time. 

4.  Fond  of  poetry.  Reads  it  some.  Very  fond  of  all  kinds  of  dancing. 
Sculptures  in  her  fancy.  Scenic  decorator.  Amateur  acting. 

Summary  of  supplementary  factors  for  the  two  contrasted 
groups  of  talent  profiles.  The  highest  5%  and  the  lowest  5% 
of  talent  profiles  represent  the  greatest  extremes  obtained  in  this 
preliminary  investigation.  There  are  four  individuals  in  each 
group. 

The  age  span  for  both  groups  varies  from  40  years  to  65  years. 

The  musical  capacities  for  the  superior  group  show  a  variation 
in  rank  for  pitch  from  86  to  99,  for  intensity  from  87  to  100, 
for  time  90  to  100,  for  memory  from  91  to  100;  for  the  poor 
group  the  pitch  ranks  vary  from  14  to  36,  the  intensity  ranks 
from  25  to  58,  the  time  ranks  from  6  to  16,  the  memory  ranks 
from  2  to  39,  with  two  of  the  group  who  tried  the  test  but  could 
not  handle  it. 


202 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON ' 


Two  of  the  superior  group  had  superior  musical  environment 
in  the  home  during  childhood.  All  of  the  poor  group  had  very 
little  or  no  musical  environment  in  the  home  during  childhood. 

Perhaps  all  heard  music  in  the  community  during  youth  but 
those  of  the  poor  group  and  one  of  superior  group  heard  little 
or  none  until  their  later  youth  when  moving  to  a  city  or  entering 
college.  The  others  were  taken  to  city  concerts  while  still  re¬ 
maining  at  the  parental  home. 

In  general  these  of  the  superior  group  were  born  into  a  musical 
environment  and  made  little  or  no  effort  to  get  awav  from  it. 
Those  of  the  poor  group  heard  little  or  no  music  and  made  no 
effort  to  gain  a  musical  environment. 

Those  of  the  superior  group  received  every  encouragement 
for  study  while  those  of  the  poor  group  received  little  or  none. 

Three  of  the  superior  group  received  a  superior  musical  educa¬ 
tion,  one  an  average  musical  education.  The  poor  group  had 
practically  no  musical  education. 

In  musical  activity  the  two  groups  are  extremely  contrasted. 
Indeed  we  might  say  that  the  superior  group  are  representative 
of  the  most  musical  persons,  the  poor  groups  the  most  unmusical. 

Music  in  some  form  is  quite  essential  daily  for  the  superior 
group  but  not  a  daily  occurrence  for  the  poor  group. 

Creative  ability  in  music  is  exhibited  by  every  member  in  the 
superior  group,  but  by  none  of  the  poor  group. 

General  Summary 

1.  Four  of  the  Seashore  Measures  of  Musical  Talent  were 
given  to  eighty-five  members  of  six  unrelated  family  groups  in 
which  one  member  of  a  family  group  was  conspicuously  known 
as  talented  in  music. 

2.  These  measures  were  supplemented  by  a  systematic  in¬ 
terrogation  which  covered  questions  in  regard  to  musical  en¬ 
vironment,  musical  education  and  training,  musical  activity, 
musical  appreciation,  musical  memory  and  imagination. 

3.  The  responses  to  all  the  supplementary  topics  for  which 
there  was  adequate  material  were  classified  into  three  sections : 
A,  C,  E. 


INHERITANCE  OF  MUSICAL  CAPACITIES 


203 


4.  The  relation  between  the  results  in  the  measurement  of 
musical  capacities  and  the  ratings  of  supplementary  topics,  is 
shown  by  means  of  frequency  tables. 

5.  The  family  records  are  presented,  in  pedigree  charts, 
comprising  531  individuals,  in  tables  of  individual  ranks  and 
ratings  in  the  measures  and  supplementary  data  respectively, 
and  family  musical  history,  followed  by  an  explanation  of  the 
form  of  preparing  the  reports  for  filing  in  the  Eugenics  Record 
Office,  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  Long  Island,  New  York. 

6.  A  study  was  made  from  the  family  musical  history  in 
regard  to  the  tendency  of  children  to  be  musical  or  non-musical 
according  to  their  parentage  and  ancestry.  Three  out  of  ten 
possible  types  were  represented  by  the  available  data. 

7.  The  result  of  each  measurement  of  musical  capacity  was 
evaluated  in  terms  of  rank  based  on  norms  established  for  un¬ 
selected  groups. 

8.  The  talent  pedigree  charts  are  a  graphic  presentation  of 
the  individual  talent  profile  for  each  family.  By  means  of  these 
charts  and  by  tables  showing  the  relation  between  children  and 
parents  in  each  capacity,  certain  statements  are  formulated  re¬ 
garding  the  type  of  offspring  resulting  from  the  represented  six 
types  of  possible  matings. 

9.  The  harmony  of  the  results  with  certain  Mendelian  laws 
in  the  family  distribution  tables  of  assumed  gametic  formulae 
is  not  improbable. 

10.  In  a  study  of  age  groups  suggestions  are  proposed  in  an 
effort  to  eliminate  or  diminish  some  of  the  recognized  sources 
of  error. 

11.  The  significance  of  this  technique  in  identifying  those 
who  are  musical  and  non-musical  is  partially  shown  in  a  com¬ 
parison  of  the  lowest  five  per  cent,  and  highest  five  per  cent, 
talent  profiles  for  which  a  separate  summary  is  given. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Davenport,  C.  B.  Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics. 

New  York:  Henry  Holt  and  Company,  1911,  pp.  271. 

2.  Davenport,  G.  C.  and  C.  B.  Heredity  of  Eye  Color  in 

Man.  Science,  N.S.,  1907,  26,  589-592. 


204 


HAZEL  MARTHA  STANTON 


3.  Davenport,  C.B.  and  Laughlin,  H.  H.  How  to  Make 

a  Eugenical  Family  Study.  Eng.  Rec.  Off.  Bull ;  1915, 
No.  13. 

4.  Fullerton  and  Cattell.  On  the  Perception  of  Small 

Differences.  (Phila.,  1892). 

5.  Kent,  Grace  and  Rosanoff,  A.  J.  A  Study  of  Associa¬ 

tion  in  Insanity.  Am.  J.  of  Insanity ,  1910,  6j,  Nos.  1 
and  2. 

6.  Seashore,  C.  E.  The  Psychology  of  Musical  Talent. 

Boston:  Silver,  Burdett  and  Co.,  1920. 

7.  Seashore,  C.  E.  The  Inheritance  of  Musical  Talent. 

Musical  Quarterly,  1920,  6,  586-598. 

8.  Seashore,  C.  E.  A  Survey  of  Musical  Talent  in  the  Pub¬ 

lic  Schools.  Univ.  of  Iowa  Stud,  of  Child  Welf.,  1, 
No.  2. 

9.  Seashore,  C.  E.  A  Measurement  of  Pitch  Discrimination. 

Psychol.  Monog.,  1910,  28,  No.  53. 

10.  Seashore,  C.  E.  Manual  of  Instructions  and  Interpreta¬ 
tions  for  Measures  of  Musical  Talent.  Columbia  Graph- 
ophone  Co.,  New  York  City. 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 
By  Glenn  N.  Merry,  Ph.D. 

The  disc  lever  recorder;  the  cylinder  lever  recorder ;  the  phonograph  re¬ 
corder  with  the  tono scope ;  character  representation  of  readings — samples 
from  E.  H.  Sothern,  Rabbi  Wise,  Franklin  V.  Roosevelt,  Mrs.  Corrine  Roose- 
velt-Robinson,  Julia  Marlowe,  James  IV.  Gerard,  and  William  G.  McAdoo. 

The  purpose  of  this  investigation  was  to  develop  a  method 
for  determining  objectively  the  pitch  of  the  human  voice,  in  any 
or  all  of  its  inflections  in  speech.  From  this  work  certain  pre¬ 
liminary  conclusions  were  drawn  as  to  tendencies  or  laws  of 
pitch  inflection  in  speech.  In  the  present  article,  we  shall,  how¬ 
ever,  limit  ourselves  to  the  mere  presentation  of  methods,  of 
measuring,  recording,  and  interpreting  the  objective  records. 
As  this  technique  furnishes  a  convenient  tool  in  the  study  of 
pitch  of  speech,  it  may  be  used  for  countless  purposes  in  the  scien¬ 
tific  approach  to  this  problem. 

The  disc  lever  recorder 

What  form  of  instrument  should  be  employed  in  the  record¬ 
ing  of  speech  will  depend  largely  upon  the  problem  in  mind. 
Wherever  the  object  is  to  study  vowel  quality,  or  any  other  form 
of  timbre,  the  most  refined  and  elaborate  methods  yet  available 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  adequate.  For  the  present  purpose, 
however,  we  are  limited  to  a  study  of  fundamental  pitch  only ; 
this  fact  simplified  the  requirements  of  apparatus.  After  a  sur¬ 
vey  of  the  various  types  of  optical,  graphic,  photographic,  and 
microscopic  methods  of  measuring  the  pitch  of  the  voice  directly 
as  spoken  or  as  taken  from  phonograph  records,  we  finally  de¬ 
vised  a  comparatively  simple  form  of  recording  apparatus  some¬ 
what  analogous  to  Scripture’s  simple  lever  apparatus  (i).~ 

1  While  much  direct  study  of  the  living  voice  was  made  under  various 
circumstances,  the  experiments  here  reported  were  all  made  with  standard 
phonograph  records  of  speeches  because  these  records  had  been  made  with¬ 
out  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  they  were  to  be  studied  and  may,  therefore, 


206 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


This  apparatus  is  constructed  on  the  principle  of  the  panto¬ 
graph  with  a  single  direct  lever  which  enlarges  the  amplitude 
and  shortens  the  wave  relatively  for  convenience  in  reading. 
The  model  here  used  was  assembled  mainly  from  standard  pieces 
of  apparatus  in  the  laboratory  as  is  shown  in  Figure  i,  a  and  b.2 

In  Figure  i,  a  (beginning  at  the  left)  note  in  order  the  driv¬ 
ing  motor,  the  kymograph  drum,  the  recording  lever,  the  Cattell 
speed  reducer,  the  microscope  for  centering  the  disc,  the  rheo¬ 
stat,  the  revolving  phonograph  table,  the  hand-controlled  wheel 
on  the  endless  screwy  the  induction  coil,  and  (above)  the  electric 
lamp  for  illuminating  the  apparatus. 

Figure  i,  b  presents  a  closer  view  showing  (from  right  to 
left)  the  teeth  of  the  phonograph  turn  table,  the  pulley  for  the 
drive,  the  mercury  cup  for  a  mercury  contact  with  the  teeth,  the 
endless  screw  of  the  mount,  the  bearing  support  of  the  lever,  the 
speed  reducer,  and  the  drum. 

An  ordinary  phonograph  plate  was  mounted  accurately  on  an 
upright  pivot  with  belt  wheel  on  the  same  axis,  below.  The  top 
of  the  pivot  was  threaded  and  the  record  was  securely  fastened 
in  place  with  a  thumb  nut.  The  record  could,  therefore,  be  re¬ 
volved  at  any  desired  speed  as  controlled  through  the  speed  re¬ 
ducer  driven  by  the  motor. 

A  very  rigidly  and  accurately  built  endless  screw  was  so 
mounted  that,  by  turning  the  crank  wheel  at  its  one  end,  a  carrier 
for  the  support  of  the  lever  could  be  moved  with  precision  for 
any  desired  placement  between  the  periphery  and  the  center  of 
the  record  and  thus  set  or  keep  the  recording  needle  in  any  de¬ 
sired  groove. 

Strange  to  say,  the  phonograph  records  are  not  very  accurate¬ 
ly  centered.  The  central  pivot  was,  therefore,  made  a  trifle  small 
and  whenever  a  record  was  to  be  mounted  it  was  accurately 
centered  by  means  of  the  reading  microscope  through  which  a 

be  regarded  as  representative.  Furthermore,  they  are  available  in  perma¬ 
nent  form  for  comparison  and  verification.  Columbia  and  Victor  records 
were  used.  However  any  disc  record  with  the  lateral  wave  would  serve 
just  as  well. 

2  The  various  forms  of  apparatus  here  described  were  designed  in  co¬ 
operation  with  Professor  Seashore. 


Fig.  A.  The  musical  touch  audiometer. 
(Figure  for  article  p.  261) 


Fig.  1 — a.  View  of  the  disc  lever  recorder,  b.  Closer  view  of  same  show¬ 
ing  timing  device,  c.  View  showing  adaptation  of  Seashore  tonoscope  for 


disc 


records. 


Fig.  2.  A  section  from  a  record  of  a  relatively  pure  tone  (actual  size.) 


sJ^s/AAf 

rvdi  r>1/l  ^  --4  A  ( ^AA/tAM/l  iMM/  |/  i/V  1/ 1 


■^Al\j^Al^AA/y^f'AI\jW\!\f^  v  <Fr  ifl 

]/S/MyiAnA4zVV^^  •  ./,,*• 

^  "  •‘/'"k  lAA/t?  AA/'A/'AAAVw  ^  A^vV^AiAA/n/V^/Vt''y/Vv'^/*;^ 

••.  y\  j  .  ?/ 

i£a\AU^A/A*>v IAAMavV^vv^A/vAV*  ;  A-'V'\.-/'1  -vAa-A/ v-^A^l/V' 

"  .  •  if"** 

if  ^yy,  ■  _  ^ 

,A /u  AvAwv. . A .v,  At  Ai  A ,  /A  , , /  A/ 

I  *  w  V  .  A  lA/  I'  l'  U„  W  H^/  ‘'W  AlA/ 


’"  '*■' .  AAV^ \fK^i  ;\h,i\r\\f\flr{/V\^/^ l/lV^V^A/y\v^V^ 


Fig.  3.  Section  of  a  speech  record  showing  differences  in  wave-form. 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


209 


given  groove  might  be  observed  under  the  hairline  for  a  com¬ 
plete  revolution.  Thus  centered,  the  disc  was  fixed  in  place  by 
means  of  the  thumb  nut. 

After  experimenting  with  levers  of  aluminum,  glass,  bamboo, 
ribbed  steel,  wire  skeleton,  and  others,  a  lever  made  from  black 
walnut  was  finally  adopted.  It  measures  890  mm.  from  fulcrum 
to  tip  and  4.2  mm.  from  fulcrum  (writing  point)  to  bearing  sup¬ 
port.  This,  therefore,  enlarges  the  amplitude  about  212  times, 
which  is  perhaps  more  than  is  really  necessary.  A  lever  500  mm. 
long  would  answer  most  purposes.  The  long  arm  of  the  lever 
was  made  tapering  and  three-ribbed,  in  cross  section  like  an  in¬ 
verted  T  (_L)  and  weighed  34.7 1  grams.  The  needle  point  ex¬ 
tended  backward  like  a  (V),  of  which  each  prong  was  delicately 
mounted  on  a  fine  needle  cross  bar  in  a  horizontal  position  on  the 
end  of  a  wooden  lever.  This  arrangement  gave  lateral  rigidity 
to  the  writing-point  and  permitted  the  needle  to  rest  by  its  own 
weight  upon  the  drum,  thus  allowing  for  slight  up  and  down 
movement  of  the  lever. 

The  needle  at  the  fulcrum  was  rigidly  supported  at  the  same 
angle  that  the  needle  ordinarily  traced  in  the  phonograph  repro¬ 
ducer.  The  “Sonora”  silver  needles  were  found  most  satisfac¬ 
tory.  Smoked  paper  for  the  tracing  was  carried  on  an  ordinary 
Zimmerman  kymograph  drum  16  cm.  in  diameter  and  11  cm. 
wide  mounted  on  a  firm  support  and  supplied  with  pulleys  for 
different  speeds.  The  form  was  free  to  slide  laterally  the  width 
of  the  paper  as  on  the  kymograph.  To  synchronize  the  speed  in 
any  given  ratio,  determined  by  the  relative  diameters  of  the  belt 
wheels  on  the  phonograph  turn  table  and  the  drum,  the  belts  for 
the  turn  table  and  the  drum  were  taken  off  from  the  same  wheel 
of  the  speed  reducer. 

The  principal  new  feature  in  this  apparatus  is  the  timing  de¬ 
vice.  It  was  necessary  to  get  into  the  graphic  tracing  some 
exact  measures  of  the  rate  of  vibration.  To  accomplish  this,  77 
teeth  were  cut  in  the  phlange  on  the  under  surface  of  the  phono¬ 
graph  plate,  or  revolving  table;  each  tooth  space  was  therefore 
equal  to  the  distance  the  phonograph  record  would  pass  under 
the  needle  in  the  groove  in  .01  sec.,  if  the  record  had  been  re- 


210 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


corded  at  78  revolutions  per  minute  which  is  the  standard  rate. 
Under  these  teeth  a  delicate  spring  tip  was  mounted  over  a 
mercury  cup  in  such  a  way  that,  for  every  time  a  tooth  passed, 
this  spring  would  fly  back  and  thus  break  its  mercury  contact. 
This  mercury  contact  was  in  the  primary  circuit  of  an  induction 
coil  for  which  the  secondary  circuit  was  completed  through  the 
lever  and  the  base  of  the  drum.  Thus,  every  time  the  mercury 
contact  was  broken,  a  spark  would  fly  through  the  tracing  point 
making  a  round  dot  in  the  record.  On  the  conditions  stated, 
these  sparks  would  then  be  exactly  .01  sec.  apart,  thus  furnish¬ 
ing  a  time  unit  of  measurement,  since  the  speed  of  both  the  drum 
and  the  phonograph  turn  table  was  controlled  from  the  same 
source. 

Variety  in  speed  was  readily  obtained  since  the  motor  had  a 
three-speed  switch,  the  drum  had  two  sizes  of  pulley,  and  the 
current  in  the  motor  could  be  varied  with  the  rheostat.  The  most 
favorable  speed  of  recording  varied  with  the  prevailing  pitch. 
When  the  waves  were  all  relatively  pure,  or  without  intricate 
contour,  a  favorable  rate  was  found  to  be  about  one  revolution 
per  minute  of  the  phonograph  disc.  But  when  the  waves  were 
of  large  amplitude  or  filled  with  many  partials,  a  slower  speed 
was  necessary.  In  general,  the  principle  followed  was  that,  in 
the  interest  of  economy,  the  record  speed  should  be  the  fastest 
rate  in  which  the  momentum  of  the  mass  of  the  lever  would  not 
be  disturbing. 

In  order  to  place  or  replace  the  needle  in  a  particular  groove  a 
chalk  line  was  drawn  on  one  or  more  radii  of  the  disc  in  such 
a  way  that  when  the  needle  passed  through  a  given  groove  it 
“plowed  out"  the  chalk  and  it  was  easy  to  locate  the  needle  in 
the  desired  groove  by  means  of  a  hand  reading  glass.  If  a  par¬ 
ticular  word  was  desired  in  any  part  of  the  record,  talcum  powder 
was  sifted  in  a  thin  layer  on  the  record  before  playing  it  in  the 
usual  way,  except  for  reduced  speed.  The  moment  the  desired 
word  was  reached,  as  judged  by  hearing,  the  record  was  removed 
and  then  placed  upon  the  graph  apparatus.  The  desired  groove 
could  be  located  in  the  same  manner  as  with  the  chalk. 

In  all  forms  of  graphic,  photographic,  or  microscopic  deter- 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


21 1 


mination  of  pitch,  we  strike  a  natural  limit  of  accuracy  in  that 
if  we  count  the  number  of  waves  in  a  relatively  long  unit,  such 
as  i  sec.,  5  sec.,  or  25  sec.,  we  take  no  account  of  fluctuations 
within  that  period.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  have  a  short' seg¬ 
ment  as  in  this  case,  .01  sec.,  covering,  e.g.,  from  1  to  10  waves, 
and  multiply  the  reading  in  this  unit  by  100,  in  order  to  reduce 
it  to  “number  of  vibrations  per  second,”  we  magnify  the  error 
of  reading. 

A  sample  tracing,  actual  size,  is  shown  in  Figure  2,  in  which 
the  method  of  counting  is  illustrated  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
record.  The  number  of  waves  are  counted  for  each  .01  sec.,  the 
waves  being  read  in  tenths.  The  reading  is  therefore  reduced 
to  number  of  vibrations  per  second  by  removing  the  decimal 
point  two  places  to  the  right.  In  order  to  minimize  the  error 
in  estimating  tenths,  the  record  is  made  cumulative.  Thus,  if 
the  spark  at  the  beginning  of  the  .01  sec.  unit  is  at  a  crest 
and  the  one  at  the  end  is  judged  to  be  3.7  of  a  wave  further  on, 
then  this  fixes  the  fact  that  .3  of  the  broken  wave  shall  be 
counted  to  the  next  unit.  When  carried  in  this  way  the  error 
of  reading  for  a  segment  of  e.g.,  .1  sec.  becomes  negligible. 
This  then  gives  us  a  record  in  two  forms :  first,  a  record  for  each 
.or  sec.,  subject  to  a  considerable  error  in  reading,  and,  second, 
a  record  for  any  cumulative  period  of  units  which  is  a  correct 
average  time  without  detail  as  to  internal  fluctuations. 

In  order  to  test  the  accuracy  of  reading  pitch  in  hundredths  of 
a  second,  the  record  was  made  of  the  tuning  fork  tone  in  the 
pitch  record  of  the  Seashore  Measures  of  Musical  Talent  (2). 
It  was  found  that  the  record  for  one  second  is  accurate  to  with¬ 
in  a  fraction  of  a  vibration;  but  when  we  take  a  segment  of  any 
given  hundredth  of  a  second  in  that  record  it  is  subject  to  an 
error  of  about  10%.  Therefore,  when  pitch  at  a  given  moment 
of  the  spoken  word  is  indicated,  it  is  subject  to  an  error  of  db 
10%  of  the  vibration  frequency  for  a  single  wave;  1 %  for  a 
group  of  ten  waves;  or  0.1%  for  a  group  of  one  hundred  waves. 
By  reading  in  units  of  i/iooth  wave  length,  under  a  measuring 
microscope,  greater  accuracy  can,  of  course,  be  secured.  But  this 
was  deemed  unnecessary. 


212 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


For  the  purpose  of  tracing  the  detailed  pitch  inflection  of 
spoken  words,  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  use  this  short  time  unit. 
In  music  such  an  error  would  be  serious,  but  in  speech  the  pitch 
of  the  voice  varies  through  so  wide  a  range  in  almost  every  word 
that  a  difference  of  this  magnitude  is  relatively  unimportant. 

The  sensitiveness  of  this  apparatus  to  wave  form  may  be 
illustrated  roughly  by  a  series  of  samples  of  records  shown  in 
Figure  3.  The  wave  may  be  so  complex  that  it  is  often  ex¬ 
tremely  difficult  to  know  what  constitutes  a  wave  unit  as  in  Figure 
3a,  in  which  the  partials  are  very  strong.  In  general,  this  lever 
graph  transcribes  whatever  is  in  wave  form  on  the  phonograph 
record,  that  is,  the  vocal  elements  of  speech. 

The  cylinder  lever  recorder 

The  apparatus  described  above  is  restricted  to  permanent  rec¬ 
ords  of  the  lateral  wave  form.  There  are,  however,  two  other 
situations  which  we  have  to  meet:  first,  the  adapting  of  the  ap¬ 
paratus  for  the  recording  of  the  vertical,  or  “hill  and  vale"  type 
of  wave,  as  in  the  cylinder  machines  and,  second,  the  prevention 
of  injury  to  records  of  this  type. 

The  apparatus  for  this  purpose  was  constructed  on  the  same 
principles  as  for  the  disk  lever  graph  with  one  fundamental  ex¬ 
ception.  To  reduce  the  bearing  or  strain  at  the  fulcrum,  the  re¬ 
cording  lever  was  mounted  in  a  vertical  position  with  just  enough 
of  the  lateral  slant  to  give  the  needle  the  desired  pressure  in  the 
groove.  As  the  needle  in  these  records  moves  up  and  down  in¬ 
stead  of  sidewise,  the  tracing  point  was  adjusted  for  this  direc¬ 
tion  of  movement.  A  lever  of  500  mm.  was  found  to  amplify 
adequately.  For  future  work  this  form  of  the  apparatus  will 
perhaps  be  the  more  important  because  it  enables  one  to  make  a 
dictaphone  record  of  the  voice  under  any  desired  conditions  and 
study  it  immediately.  It  also  commends  itself  because  practi¬ 
cally  all  scientific  and  artistic  records  made  for  historical  or  ex¬ 
perimental  purposes  are  in  this  form  on  soft  cylinders. 

This  cylinder  lever  apparatus  was  improvised  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  disc  lever  apparatus,  but  both  can  be  put  in  more 
compact  and  economic  form  by  being  especially  constructed  in  a 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


2 13 


permanent  and  compact  unit,  now  that  preliminary  tests  have 
been  made.  This  will  involve  certain  fine  adjustments  for  the 
movements  of  the  drum,  and  other  parts  which  we  have  not  pro¬ 
vided  for  in  the  present  form.  The  main  thing  to  be  considered 
is  that  we  have  here  now  a  transcribing  apparatus  which  records 
pitch  faithfully  from  the  soft  record  and  does  not  injure  the 
record  any  more  than  an  ordinary  playing  injures  it.  Records 
of  Indian  music,  e.g.,  may  thus  be  put  into  indestructible,  read¬ 
able,  and  measurable  form  while  the  original  soft  wax  record  is 
in  a  good  state  of  preservation. 

The  phonograph  recorder  with  the  tono scope 

Several  years  ago  Seashore  demonstrated  that  the  tonoscope 
will  record  from  the  phonograph  just  as  well  as  from  the  living 
voice.  It  is,  therefore,  possible  to  do  all  the  forms  of  conven¬ 
tional  pitch  reading  on  the  tonoscope  (3)  from  a  phonograph 
record. 

The  adjustment  of  the  disc  type  of  record  with  the  tonoscope 
is  shown  in  Figure  ic.  A  pulley  placed  on  the  end  of  the  main 
shaft  of  the  tonoscope  connects  with  a  belt  running  over  a  pul¬ 
ley  on  the  phonograph  pulley  on  the  same  principle  as  in  Figure 
1  a  and  b.  The  motor  of  the  phonograph  being  disconnected,  the 
phonograph  disc  is  driven  in  exact  synchronism  with  the  tono¬ 
scope  by  means  of  this  belt  arrangement.  By  varying  the  size  of 
the  pulley  on  the  tonoscope  shaft  any  desired  speed  of  the  record 
disc  may  be  obtained.  It  is  particularly  desirable  to  use  slow 
speed  in  order  that  the  detail  of  the  record  may  be  observed  with 
more  leisure  and  exactness.  The  ordinary  reproducer  is  con¬ 
verted  into  a  manometric  capsule  by  making  a  gas  chamber  with 
intake  and  jet  nipple  over  the  membrane  of  the  reproducer  in 
such  a  way  that  the  vibration  of  this  membrane  will  produce  the 
same  stroboscopic  effect  as  does  the  singing  into  the  manometric 
capsule  in  the  ordinary  use  of  the  tonoscope. 

In  very  slow  reproduction  the  tone  is  so  low  that  it  cannot  be 
heard  with  accuracy  from  the  ordinary  resonating  chamber  of 
the  phonograph.  Therefore  a  small  capsule  is  drawn  over  the 
back  side  of  the  reproducer  connected  through  a  rubber  tube  with 


214 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


the  ordinary  binaurals.  This  conducts  the  sound  well  to  the  ex¬ 
perimenter  so  that  he  can  coordinate  the  visual  readings  of  the 
tone  with  what  he  hears. 

The  tonoscopic  method  of  measure  and  analysis  is  of  very  great 
value  in  connection  with  the  graphic  methods.  In  many  in¬ 
stances  the  graphic  record  is  so  complicated  that  it  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  fundamental  from  partials;  but,-  in  the  slow  reading 
of  the  record  on  the  tonoscope,  one  can  see  in  the  moving  picture 
on  the  screen  the  exact  movement  of  pitch  and  compare  the 
record  of  this  with  the  graphic  record.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  pitch  glides  where  one  can  see  the  continuous  glide  over  an 
octave  or  more  at  a  leisurely  rate.  Indeed  the  tonoscope  method 
is  so  immediate  and  convenient  and,  for  many  purposes,  fully 
as  accurate  as  the  graphic  method,  that  it  can  be  employed  to 
great  advantage.  The  main  difficulty  is  that  the  time  element  of 
the  tone  can  often  not  be  determined  with  such  precision  as  is 
needed  in  the  study  of  speech  inflections. 

The  cylinder  type  of  phonograph  was  rigged  up  in  the  same 
manner  and  on  the  same  principle  as  that  just  described,  and  was 
found  to  be  particularly  convenient  where  an  inflection  in  ques¬ 
tion  was  studied  under  controlled  and  repeatable  conditions. 
Thus,  the  observer  may  be  instructed  to  attempt  a  given  speech 
effect  as  regards  speech  inflection.  The  speech  is  then  recorded 
on  the  dictaphone,  and  that  makes  it  possible  to  graph  the  record 
and  to  project  it  on  the  tonoscope  as  often  as  desired,  knowing 
that  it  was  the  same  effect  that  was  being  studied.  After  certain 
fundamental  facts  have  been  established  by  the  graphic  method 
the  tonoscope  method  may  be  used  entirely  in  the  study  of  such 
dictaphone  records  made  under  laboratory  conditions. 

Graphic  representation  of  readings 

Various  methods  have  been  employed  in  attempting  to  repre¬ 
sent  pitch  changes  in  speech.  If  we  represent  the  data  in  terms 
of  vibrations  only,  the  facts  as  experienced  will  be  relatively  dis¬ 
torted  because  a  small  number  of  vibrations  at  a  low  pitch  may 
mean  as  much  in  tonal  perception  as  a  large  number  at  a  higher 
pitch.  The  musical  staff  furnishes  the  truest  proportions  of  pitch 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


215 


changes  at  all  pitch  levels.  We  have,  therefore,  adopted  the  plan 
of  making  all  graphs  on  paper  in  units  of  semi-tones,  designat¬ 
ing  in  the  margin  the  vibration  frequency  for  each  semi-tone. 

A  scale  converting  vibration  frequency  into  a  unit  of  tenths 
of  a  tone  for  all  pitch  levels,  once  drawn,  furnishes  a  convenient 
means  of  transferring  the  reading  from  vibrations  into  semi¬ 
tones.  The  graph,  therefore,  shows  pitch  in  the  vertical  units 
and  time  in  the  horizontal  units.  Each  block  horizontally  repre¬ 
sents  1  sec.;  there  are,  therefore,  ten  observation  points  within 
each  such  unit. 

The  question  then  arises  as  to  the  advisability  of  representing 
the  results  in  the  raw  plotting  from  actual  readings  or  in  a 
smoothed  curve.  The  raw  readings  in  terms  of  tenths  of  a  vi¬ 
bration  when  converted  into  a  semi-tone,  present  comparatively 
coarse  contour  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  reading  is  in  so 
fine,  units  .01  sec.3 

We  have,  however,  deemed  it  advisable  to  plot  the  curves  in 
raw,  as  actually  read.  In  studying  the  curves  one  should,  there¬ 
fore,  bear  in  mind  that  the  true  contour  of  a  curve  would  perhaps 
be  more  nearly  right  if  it  were  smoothed  in  accordance  with  con¬ 
ventional  methods  of  smoothing.  The  merit  of  the  method 
adopted  is  that  it  shows  the  actual,  individual  readings  and  en¬ 
ables  any  interpreter  or  future  experimenter  to  decide  what  type 
of  smoothing  should  take  place.  This  is  a  matter  of  very  great 
importance  for  the  understanding  of  the  character  of  pitch  in¬ 
flection  and,  as  the  apparatus  for  determining  it  in  very  fine  de¬ 
tail  is  now  at  hand,  we  hope  to  settle  this  question  by  experiment 
at  an  earlv  date. 

J 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  method,  certain  typical  records  are 
presented  in  Figs.  4-41.  These  figures,  it  will  be  seen,  have  the 
merit  of  showing  the  course  of  the  pitch  in  detail  in  both  ac¬ 
curate  and  easily  interpreted  terms,  as  the  pitch  is  indicated  both 
in  terms  of  vibration  and  in  terms  of  semi-tones  as  designated 
by  the  notation  in  the  margin  at  the  left. 

3  If  any  emergency  should  arise  in  which  a  higher  degree  of  accuracy  in 
reading  should  be  needed,  it  is  only  necessary  to  run  the  kymograph  drum 
so  much  faster  that  each  wave  will  be  drawn  out  long  enough  to  be  read  in 
finer  units,  possibly  one-hundredth  of  a  vibration. 


2l6 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


Graphs  Scries  A,  Figs.  4-19.  Speaker:  E.  H.  Sothern.  Shylock’s  Speech, 
Victor  record  No.  746/3 


He  hath  disgraced  me  and  hindered  me  half  a  million, 

Fig.  4. 


laughed  at  my  losses,  mocked  at  my  gains,  scorned  my  nation,  thwarted 

Fig.  5. 


my  bargains,  cooled  my  friends,  heated  mine  enemies.  And  what’s 

Fig.  6. 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


217 


T. 


n 


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his  reason?  I  am  a  Jew.  Hath  not  a  Jew 

Fig.  7. 


hands,  organs,  dimensions,  senses,  affections 

Fig.  8. 


2l8 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


passions  fed  with  the  same  food,  hurt  with  the  same 

Fig.  9. 


weapons,  subject  to  the  same  diseases,  healed  by  the  same 

Fig.  10. 


means,  warmed  and  cooled  by  the  same  winter  and  summer  as  a 

Fig.  11. 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


219 


Fig.  12. 


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tickle  us,  do  we  not  laugh?  If  you  poison  us,  do  we  not 

Fig.  13. 


die?  And,  if  you  wrong  us,  shall  we  not 

Fig.  14. 


220 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


Fig.  15. 


If  a  Jew  wrong  a  Christian,  what  is  his  humility?  Revenge!  If  a 

Fig.  16. 


Christian  wrong  a  Jew,  what  should  his  sufferance  be?  By  Christian 

Fig.  1 7. 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


221 


example,  why  revenge. 
Fig.  i  8. 


The  villainy  you  teach  me  I  will  execute  and  it  shall  go  hard.  .  .  . 

Fig.  19. 


222 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


Graphs  Scries  B,  Figs.  20-31.  Speaker:  Rabbi  Wise .  Speech,  “President 
Wilson. ”  Columbia  record  No.  49738. 


Less  than  a  year  ago  the  moral  leadership  of  the  world  was  in  our  grasp.  We  had  entered 

Fig.  20. 


upon  the  great  adventure  to  save  the  world  to  make  and  to  keep  it  free  to  rebuild  an 

Fig.  21. 


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order  of  life  that  should  be  just  and  righteous  altogether.  At  the  critical  hour  we 

Fig.  22. 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


223 


rendered  decisive  help  taking  our  place  by  the  side  of  England,  France  and 

Fig.  23. 


Italy  as  deliverers  of  the  world  from  the  horrors  of  Prussianism. 

Fig.  24. 


The  service  was  rendered,  the  sacrifices  were  made  and  for 

Fig.  25. 


generations  we  shall  pay  the  toll.  But  the  moral  leadership  of 

Fig.  26. 


224 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


mankind  which  we  have  abdicated  for  a  time  we  would  and  we 

Fig.  27. 


shall  reclaim.  It  shall  not  be  brought  to  pass  that  all  the  services 


Fig.  28. 


and  sacrifices  are  to  be  forgotten  by  Europe  and  nothing  will  be 

Fig.  29. 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


225 


r 


remembered  of  America  save  that  at  the  last  moment  we  shrank  from  an 

Fig.  30. 


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imperative  duty  which  it  was  the  path  of  courage  and  nobleness  to  accept. 

Fig.  31. 


226 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


Graphs  Series  C,  Figs.  32,  33  and  34.  Speaker:  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt. 
Speech ,  “ Americanism Columibia  record  No.  49871. 


Much  has  been  said  of  late  about  good  Americanism.  It  is  right  that  it  should  have  been 
said  and 


Fig.  32. 


Fig.  33. 


prosperity. 
Fig.  34. 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


22  7 


Graphs  Series  D,  Figs.  35-38.  Speaker:  Mrs.  Corrine  Roosevelt-Robinson. 
Speech,  “Safeguard  America.”  Columbia  record  No.  49864. 


out  of  war  keeping  us  out  of  war  until  he  ...  .  True 

Fig.  35- 


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love  with  duty  and  service  and  always  unafraid 

Fig.  36. 


228 


GLENN  N.  MERRY 


for  two  reasons;  first,  because  they 
Fig.  37. 


and  rebuilding  different 

Fig.  38. 


Graphs  Series  E,  Fig.  39.  Speaker:  Julia  Marlowe.  Portia's  Speech.  Vic¬ 
tor  record  No.  74673. 


If  they  do  see  thee  they  will  murder  thee. 

Fig.  39- 


Graphs  Series  F,  Fig.  40.  Speaker:  James  IV.  Gerard.  Speech ,  “ Loyalty  ” 
Columbia  record  No.  77666. 


If  you  dare  to  make  a  move  against  Germany 

Fig.  40. 


VOICE  INFLECTION  IN  SPEECH 


229 


Graphs  Series  G,  Fig.  41.  Speaker:  William  G.  McAdoo.  Speech,  “ Re¬ 
vise  Taxes!1  Columbia  record  No.  49706. 


Fig.  41. 


References 

1.  Scripture,  E.  W.  Stud.  Yale  Psychol.  Lab.,  VII,  pp.  10-14. 

2.  Seashore,  C.  E.  Measures  of  Musical  Talent — Sense  of  Pitch,  Colum¬ 
bia  Graphophone  Company,  New  York. 

3.  Seashore,  C.  E.  The  Tonoscope.  Univ.  of  Iowa  Stud,  in  Psychol.,  IV, 
1914,  pp.  1-12. 


AN  EXPERIMENTAL  STUDY  OF  THE  PITCH  FACTOR 

IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 

By 

Max  Schoen,  Ph.D. 

I.  Intonation :  individual  characteristics;  general  conclusions  on  intonation. 
II.  The  Vibrato:  the  nature  of  the  vibrato  ( intensity ,  pitch,  period )  ;  the 
significance  of  the  vibrato;  the  measurement  of  the  vibrato  in  famous 
singers — Melba,  Gluck,  Eames,  Alda,  Destinn;  general  conclusions  on 
the  measurements  of  vibrato;  the  physiology  of  the  vibrato. 

“Songs  are  never  sung — or  intended  to  be  sung — exactly  as  written.  Even 
the  most  mechanical  popular  tune  is  rendered  differently  by  each  individual, 
the  difference  lying  mainly  in  the  duration  of  the  elements,  in  the  stress 
assigned  to  them,  and  above  all  in  the  attack  by  the  voice  and  the  utterance 
of  each  sound.  In  artistic  performance  all  these  sources  of  variation  are 
employed,  mainly  unconsciously,  to  express  the  thought  or  emotion  of  the 
singer.  Concerning  just  how  they  are  varied  and  how  they  are  employed 
there  are  at  present  no  experimental  data.”  (23,  p.  488) 

It  was  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  scientific  data  of  these 
unconscious  modifications  of  a  musical  melody  by  a  great  artist 
that  the  study  here  reported  was  undertaken. 

Artistic  singing,  as  all  musical  production,  is  not  one  talent, 
but  a  hierarchy  of  talents.  Most  of  the  factors  functioning  in 
effective  vocal  production,  those  of  most  significance,  are  inborn; 
those  that  may  be  acquired  serve  the  better  to  develop  and  to 
make  use  of  that  which  has  been  inherited.  The  following  in¬ 
ventory  of  the  singing  organism  follows  in  the  main  the  classifi¬ 
cation  given  by  Seashore  (25,  pp.  7-8)  in  his  inventory  of  musical 
talent  in  general,  but  is  here  enumerated  in  the  order  of  signifi¬ 
cance  for  singing: 

1.  General  neuro-muscular  setting 

2.  Acquired  muscular  control  of  the  singing  mechanisms 

3.  Musical  sensitivity:  pitch,  intensity,  timbre,  time,  rhythm,  volume, 

extensity,  consonance 

4.  Musical  action:  control  of  pitch,  intensity,  time,  rhythm,  timbre, 

volume 

5.  Imagery :  auditory,  motor,  creative  imagination 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


231 


6.  Tonal  memory:  memory  span,  learning  power 

7.  Musical  feeling,  musical  taste,  emotional  reaction  to  music,  emotional 

self-expression  in  music 

8.  Musical  intellect:  musical  free  association,  musical  power  of  reflection 

9.  General  intelligence 

10.  Personality. 

A  detailed  account  of  the  meaning  and  measurement  of  items 
3-10  is  given  by  Seashore  (25).  This  study  offers  experimental 
data  on  the  nature  and  significance  of  the  first  two  items  and 
may  to  that  extent  be  considered  a  supplement  to  the  Seashore 
tests. 

In  the  main  study  of  pitch  the  Seashore  tonoscope  (27,  pp. 
1 -12)  was  used  with  the  phonograph  as  accessory  in  various 
ways.1  For  the  present  purpose  a  phonograph  record  of  the 
singer’s  voice  was  substituted  for  the  actual  voice.  This  was 
accomplished  by  connecting  the  turntable  of  the  phonograph  with 
the  shaft  of  the  tonoscope  by  means  of  belt  and  pulleys,  the 
turntable  thus  moving  synchronously  with  the  drum  of  the 
tonoscope.  The  sensitive  flame  attachment  was  built  into  the 
reproducer  of  the  phonograph  so  that  every  vibration  in  the  re¬ 
producer  registered  on  the  tonoscope  just  the  same  as  would  the 
actual  voice.  The  turntable  could  be  set  for  any  desired  rate  of 

1  The  tonoscope  works  on  the  principle  of  moving  pictures,  technically  known 
as  stroboscopic  vision.  The  machine  converts  sound  vibrations  into  pictures 
on  a  screen.  This  screen  has  eighteen  thousand  and  ninety-five  holes  so 
placed  that,  when  acted  upon  by  a  sensitive  flame,  they  arrange  themselves 
in  characteristic  figures  for  every  possible  pitch  within  the  range  of  the 
human  voice.  Each  figure  points  tO'  a  number  on  the  screen  which  indicates 
the  pitch.  The  holes  are  arranged  into  one  hundred  and  ten  rows,  the  first 
one  having  one  hundred  and  ten  holes,  the  third,  one  hundred  and  eleven 
holes,  and  so  on,  each  successive  alternate  row  having  one  more  hole  than 
the  preceding  one,  up  to  the  last,  which  has  two  hundred  and  nineteen  holes. 
When  a  tone  is  sounded  the  row  which  has  the  hole  frequency  that  cor¬ 
responds  to  the  vibration  frequency  of  the  tone  will  stand  still,  while  alt 
other  rows  move  and  tend  to  blur.  The  row  that  stands  still,  or  nearly 
still,  therefore  points  to  a  number  on  the  scale  which  designates  the  pitch  of 
the  tone.  The  tonoscope  thus  produces  for  the  eye  a  picture  of  the  vibra¬ 
tions  of  a  tone,  a  picture  which  reveals  details  of  pitch  faithfully  and  far 
more  finely  than  the  ear  can  hear,  thus  affording  a  most  sensitive,  objective 
measurement  of  pitch.  Every  pitch  movement  of  the  voice  is  pictured  on 
the  screen,  and  the  observer  can  tell  at  the  very  moment  a  tone  is  produced 
what  error  is  involved,  even  down  to  a  small  fraction  of  a  vibration. 


232 


MAX  SCHOEN 


revolution.  Thus  slow  and  long  exposure  of  each  tone  of  the 
composition  studied  made  possible  intensive  observation.  The 
instrumental  arrangement  here  used  is  the  same  as  that  described 
by  Merry  (17). 

The  Bach-Gounod  “Ave  Maria ’  was  chosen  as  a  composition 
adapted  for  study  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  long  sustained 
tones  and  the  numerous  phonograph  records  of  it  available  as 
sung  by  famous  artists.  The  renditions  of  the  following  singers, 
all  sopranos,  were  selected:  Nellie  Melba,  Alma  Gluck,  Frances 
Alda,  Emma  Eames,  Emmy  Destinn. 

For  the  purpose  of  supplementing  and  verifying  the  findings 
with  the  tonoscope,  the  graphic  method  as  described  by  Merry 
(17)  was  used.  This  apparatus  furnishes  a  pantograph  transcript 
of  the  phonograph  record  in  which  the  amplitude  of  the  waves 
is  magnified  about  two  hundred  times.  It  was  built  in  this  labora¬ 
tory  during  the  present  year,  and  consists  essentially  of  a  light 
lever  tracing  the  waves  of  a  phonograph  record  on  a  kymograph 
drum,  the  phonograph  turntable  and  the  kymograph  drum  being 
synchronized.  An  electric  spark  through  the  tracing  point  marks 
time  intervals  of  one  one-hundredth  of  a  second.  Details  of  time, 
tonal  movement  and  number  of  pitch  changes  in  a  tone  were 
secured  by  this  means. 

Under  the  general  term  “pitch’’  the  following  specific  items 
were  studied  for  each  tone  of  the  composition :  attack,  intonation, 
pitch  fluctuations,  release,  tonal  movement. 

To  facilitate  the  description  of  the  mode  of  procedure,  a  single 
tone  from  the  composition  will  be  chosen  and  an  account  given 
of  how  data  for  the  items  under  “pitch”  were  secured.  Take 
the  tone  d",  the  third  voice  tone  from  the  beginning  of  the  com¬ 
position.  It  is  preceded  by  c"  and  followed  by  a".  Tone  c" 
was  first  registered  and  the  movement  from  this  tone  to  d"  ob¬ 
served.  The  movement  might  be  a  glide  or  a  leap,  or,  in  musical 
terms,  a  portamento  or  a  legato  movement.  In  this,  the  attack 
of  the  tone  d"  was  observed  with  reference  to  its  time,  pitch 
level  and  pitch  inflection.  The  next  point  observed  was  what 
happened  while  the  tone  was  sustained.  The  tone  may  be  (1) 
constant  in  pitch,  (2)  fluctuating  irregularly  in  pitch,  or,  (3) 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


233 


fluctuating  periodically  in  pitch.  The  last  point  to  be  observed 
was  the  pitch  on  which  the  tone  ended. 

Several  weeks  were  devoted  to  testing  the  reliability  of  the 
apparatus  and  to  practice  in  accurate  reading  of  the  tonoscope 
and  records.  For  the  former  purpose  the  living  voice  was  utilized 
in  order  to  make  absolutely  certain  that  none  of  the  irregularities 
observed  in  a  tone  from  the  disk  were  due  to  some  imperfection 
in  the  apparatus.  The  accuracy  of  the  speed  of  the  turntable  was 
repeatedly  tested  by  registering  tones  from  instruments  producing 
a  constant  pitch,  such  as  tuning  forks  and  orchestra  bells. 

The  key  tone  for  each  singer  was  obtained  from  the  piano 
reading  on  the  tonoscope  and  checked  up  by  information  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  record  laboratory. 

The  Ave  Maria  contains  106  sung  tones,  ranging  in  duration 
from  a  whole  tone  to  a  sixteenth  tone,  mostly  whole,  three-quar¬ 
ter,  half,  and  quarter  notes,  in  the  key  of  G  major,  and  has  a 
range  from  d'  to  b"  in  pitch.  Data  were  obtained  for  every  tone 
in  the  composition  for  the  following  nine  items : 

1.  Attack:  how  a  tone  is  attacked  when  preceded  by  (a)  a 
higher  tone,  (b)  a  lower  tone,  (c)  a  rest,  (d)  when  the  sung  tone 
is  of  long  duration,  and  (e)  when  it  is  of  short  duration. 

2.  Release:  how  a  tone  is  released  when  succeeded  by  (a)  a 
higher  tone,  (b)  a  lower  tone,  (c)  a  rest,  (d)  when  the  sung  tone 
is  of  long  duration,  and  (e)  when  it  is  of  short  duration. 

3.  Predominant  pitch:  if  the  tone  undergoes  several  pitch 
changes  while  sustained,  on  which  one  of  the  several  pitches  is  it 
mostly  held,  and  what  is  the  number  and  extent  of  the  deviations 
above  and  below  this  predominant  pitch? 

4.  Vowel:  the  effect  of  the  vowel  on  which  the  tone  is  sung 
on  the  pitch  of  the  tone. 

5.  Tonal  movement:  how  the  singer  moves  from  tone  to 
tone,  whether  by  glides  or  leaps,  and  to  what  degree.  Thus,  in 
the  case  of  a  glide,  the  movement  may  be  heavy  and  slow,  the 
voice  dwelling  upon  every  vibration  intervening  between  the  two 
tones,  or  it  may  be  light  and  quick  so  as  hardly  to  be  perceptible 
to  even  the  most  acute  ear. 


234 


MAX  SCHOEN 


6.  The  crescendo:  the  effect  upon  the  pitch  of  a  rise  in  the 
intensity  of  the  tone. 

7.  Successive  predominant  pitches :  when  the  same  tone  is 
sung  several  times  in  the  course  of  the  composition,  how  do  the 
predominant  pitches  of  the  tone  in  the  successive  repetitions  com¬ 
pare  with  one  another? 

8.  Deviations :  how  the  deviations  above  and  below  the  pre¬ 
dominant  pitch  of  the  sung  tone  compares  with  the  standard 
pitch  for  that  tone  in  pure  and  tempered  intonation.  For  the 
tones  sung  in  this  selection,  a  difference  between  pure  and  tem¬ 
pered  intonation  exists  only  in  the  perfect  fourth  (2  dv.)  and 
the  major  sixth  (1  dv.)  ;  these  differences  being  so  slight  that  a 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  singer  to  sing  either  sharp  or  flat 


Fig.  1.  The  tone  a'  as  sung  three 
different  times  by  five  different  sing¬ 
ers  showing: 

A,  Attack 

B-F,  How  the  tone  is  sustained 
G,  The  release 

I,  Pitch  of  standard  tone  as  ob¬ 

tained  from  the  piano 

J,  The  average  attack 

K,  Pitch  of  predominant  sung 

tone  (average  pitch) 

L,  Release  above  and  below 

M,  Average  deviation  above  and 

below 

N,  Maximum  deviation  above  and 

below 

O,  Rise  of  pitch  in  crescendo 

P,  Initial  of  singer 

Norm  Tone  (at  the  bottom) 

A,  Standard  pitch 

B,  Attack 

C,  Pitch  of  sung  tone 

D,  Release 

E,  Average  deviation  above  and 

below 

F,  Maximum  deviation  above  and 

below 

G,  Rise  of  pitch  in  crescendo 
I-M,  Effect  of  vowel  on  pitch. 


Fig.  1.  Intonation 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


235 


will  appply  in  respect  to  both  the  pure  and  tempered  scale.  The 
tempered  scale  is  therefore  made  here  the  basis  in  the  graphs  and 
the  discussion  of  the  results. 

Fig.  i  shows  graphically  the  results  of  the  measurements 
on  Intonation  for  the  five  singers.  Each  singer  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  two  graphs,  one  graph  showing  individual  tone,  (the 
same  tone  as  it  is  sung  three  different  times  throughout  the  com¬ 
position),  and  the  other  graph  showing  a  type  indicative  of  the 
general  characteristics  of  the  singer.  Finally,  at  the  bottom,  a 
graph  showing  a  norm  tone  for  all  the  singers  is  given.  In  each 
case  the  graph  shows  the  nine  items  defined  above. 

A  description  of  the  items  represented  in  the  figure  for  one 
tone  for  the  first  singer  (D)  may  aid  the  reader  to  better  inter¬ 
pret  the  graphic  representation  of  the  results. 

The  numbers  at  the  left  indicate  pitch  in  terms  of  vibrations 
(dv.).  Thus,  the  number  648  means  a  tone  of  that  number  of 
vibrations  per  second,  or  tone  e",  4th  space  of  the  treble  clef. 
This  tone,  however,  may  be  of  vibration  frequencies  differing 
from  each  other  within  several  vibrations,  the  exact  number  of 
vibrations  depending  upon  the  pitch  in  which  the  instrument  is 
tuned.  Thus,  in  the  Ave  Maria,  the  pitch  of  e"  varies  slightly  in 
vibrations  for  the  five  singers,  although  the  composition  is  sung 
in  each  case  in  the  key  of  G.  Thus,  for  Melba  g'  is  393  dv.,  Des- 
tinn,  390  dv. ;  Gluck,  398  dv. ;  Alda,  394  dv. ;  Eames,  390  dv. 
This  difference  in  the  key  tone  of  the  piano  is  indicated  in  the 
graph  for  e"  by  the  heavy  horizontal  line  in  column  I,  being  655 
dv.  for  Melba,  656  dv.  for  Alda,  664  dv.  for  Gluck,  650  dv.  for 
Eames,  and  650  dv.  for  Destinn.  Further,  since  a  tone  produced 
by  the  human  voice  is  not  steady  but  rises  and  falls  slightly  in 
pitch,  it  was  necessary  to  indicate  the  frequency,  form  and  ex¬ 
tent  of  this  variation.  These  are  represented  by  the  irregu¬ 
larly  curving  line  as  scaled  by  the  numbers  at  the  left,  the 
interval  from  one  number  to  the  other,  or  from  one  square  to  the 
other,  vertically,  measuring  1/10  of  a  tone. 

The  duration  of  the  tone  is  represented  horizontally,  each 
square  indicating  .5  sec. 

We  are  now  ready  to  follow  the  course  of  a  single  tone  on  the 


236 


MAX  SCHOEN 


graph.  We  shall  take  the  tone  represented  by  the  solid  line  in 
Singer  D. 

The  true  pitch  of  that  tone  as  obtained  from  the  piano  is  650 
dv.,  and  is  indicated  in  column  I.  If  this  tone  were  sustained  by 
D  throughout  on  the  same  pitch,  and  sung  exactly  in  true  pitch,  it 
would  appear  on  the  graph  as  a  straight  line  on  the  level  with  the 
line  in  I.  But  we  see  that  it  begins  at  about  648  dv.,  then  rises  in 
the  first  .5  sec.  of  its  duration  to  about  656  dv.,  or  almost  1/10  of 
a  tone,  by  the  next  .5  sec.  it  drops  to  651  dv.,  and  rises  again  to 
655  dv.,  approximately  1/5  of  a  tone  from  the  beginning  of  the 
attack;  there  it  stays  for  a  little  over  1.2  seconds,  and  then  it 
gradually  drops  to  644  dv.,  where  it  ends,  thus  having  described 
a  fluctuation  within  a  range  of  1/4  of  a  tone. 

The  same  tone  sung  in  two  other  parts  of  the  selection  is  regis¬ 
tered  in  the  same  manner  in  the  other  two  lines. 

The  average  extent  of  the  glide  in  the  attack  for  every  time  this 
tone  occurs  in  the  selection  is  shown  by  the  height  of  the  slanting 
line  in  (J).  Thus,  as  compared  with  the  standard  pitch  in  col¬ 
umn  I,  Singer  D  attacks  the  tone  about  1/10  of  a  tone  low,  ends 
the  attack  about  1/15  of  a  tone  sharp  (column  K),  and  releases 
her  tones  from  3/100  to  3/20  of  a  tone  high  (column  L). 
The  average  extent  of  the  fluctuations  that  take  place  in  her 
tones  above  and  below  the  predominant  pitch  as  well  as  the  stan¬ 
dard  pitch  is  3/25  of  a  tone  (column  M)  ;  the  largest  pitch 
changes  that  occur  run  from  1/7  of  a  tone  above  to  1/6  of  a 
tone  below  the  standard  pitch  (column  N)  ;  and  finally  we  see 
that  she  has  a  marked  tendency  to  raise  the  pitch  when  a  cres¬ 
cendo  takes  place  (column  O). 

At  the  bottom  of  Fig.  1  a  norm  tone  is  recorded.  This  was 
obtained  from  the  averages  of  all  the  tones  in  the  composition  for 
each  of  the  singers  for  the  items  shown. 

This  is  to  show  that,  in  terms  of  the  standard  pitch,  (column 
A),  the  singers  initiate  a  tone  on  the  average  1/10  of  a  tone  low 
when  the  sung  tone  is  preceded  either  by  a  rest  or  a  tone  of  lower 
pitch  (column  B).  The  attack  when  the  preceding  tone  is  above 
the  sung  tone  is  clean  (column  B).  In  terms  of  the  standard 
pitch,  the  singers  sing  sharp  about  1/25  of  a  tone  (column  C). 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


237 


The  tone  is  released  sharp,  about  1/30  of  a  tone  in  terms  of  the 
predominant  pitch,  and  about  1/15  of  a  tone  in  terms  of  the  stan¬ 
dard  pitch  (column  D).  The  extent  of  the  average  deviations 
above  and  below  the  predominant  pitch  is  about  the  same,  1/30 
of  a  tone,  (column  E),  while  the  extent  of  the  maximum  devia¬ 
tions  above  and  below  the  predominant  pitch  is  3/40  and  1/12  of 
a  tone  respectively  (column  F). 

The  record  of  the  effect  of  the  vowel  on  the  pitch  of  the  tone, 
shown  in  columns  I-M,  is  based  upon  the  data  obtained  from  the 
averages  of  the  predominant  pitches  of  three  tones,  namely, 
c",  d",  e",  for  the  following  number  of  cases:  i,  28  times;  a,  26 
times;  e,  18  times;  0 ,  12  times;  u,  6  times. 

Individual  Characteristics 

Emmy  Destinn. — 1.  The  low  attack  predominates,  and  is  of  large  extent. 
Irrespective  of  the  position  of  the  preceding  tone,  the  sung  tone  is  never 
attacked  high. 

2.  The  release  is  predominantly  above  and  of  comparatively  large  extent. 

3.  A  predominant  tone  is  slightly  present,  the  fluctuations  being  large  in 
extent  and  numerous,  with  the  deviations  above  the  predominant  tone  out¬ 
numbering  those  below. 

4.  The  effect  of  the  vowel  on  the  pitch  is  erratic. 

5.  A  pitch  rise  in  the  crescendo  is  almost  always  present. 

6.  The  tonal  movement  is  a  marked  portamento. 

7.  The  deviations  from  each  other  of  the  predominant  pitches  for  the 
same  tone  are  marked  and  numerous.  Thus,  the  tone  d",  sung  twelve  times, 
occurs  on  five  different  pitches  within  the  range  of  545-573  d.v. 

8.  A  tendency  to  sing  sharp,  in  terms  of  the  predominant  tone,  is  mani¬ 
fest. 

9.  In  both  pure  and  tempered  intonation  D.  sings  markedly  sharp. 

Alma  Gluck. — 1.  When  the  tone  is  sung  after  a  rest  or  after  an  inspiration 
or  is  approached  from  an  interval  more  than  a  major  second  below,  it  is 
invariably  initiated  on  a  pitch  somewhat  below  the  desired  tone,  the  extent 
of  the  error  in  attack  depending  on  the  distance,  below,  of  the  preceding 
tone.  The  low  attack  is  most  marked  in  extent  when  the  tone  is  preceded 
by  a  rest,  and  is  also  more  marked  in  a  tone  of  long  duration  than  in  one  of 
shorter  duration.  When  the  preceding  tone  is  above,  the  attack  is  invariably 
clean. 

2.  The  release  is  predominantly  high,  irrespective  of  the  succeeding  tone, 
and  is  of  marked  extent. 

3.  The  aperiodic  fluctuations  in  the  tone  are  few,  of  small  extent,  and 
more  numerous  above  than  below  the  predominant  pitch.  A  predominant 
pitch  is  present  to  a  marked  degree,  and  is  continuous  rather  than  inter¬ 
mittent. 


238 


MAX  SCHOEN 


4.  There  is  a  tendency  for  the  vowels  i,  a,  e,  to  be  sung  higher  than  o 
and  u. 

5.  The  movement  from  tone  to  tone  is  mostly  in  the  form  of  glides  (por¬ 
tamento). 

6.  In  the  crescendo  tone  there  is  invariably  a  rise  in  pitch  of  marked 
extent. 

7.  The  deviations  from  each  other  of  the  predominant  pitches  for  the 
same  tone,  as  sung  in  successive  occurrence,  are  very  small  in  extent  and 
few  in  number. 

8.  The  maximum  deviation  below  the  predominant  pitch  is  greater  than 
the  maximum  deviation  above,  but  the  general  tendency  is  to  sing  sharp  in 
terms  of  the  predominant  tone. 

9.  In  both  pure  and  tempered  intonation  G.  sings  sharp. 

Nellie  Melba. — 1.  The  low  attack  is  almost  constantly  present  and  of  large 
extent. 

2.  The  release  is  unusually  clean. 

3.  A  predominant  tone  is  conspicuously  present,  the  fluctuations  are  very 
few  and  of  small  extent,  with  the  departures  above  and  below  the  pre¬ 
dominant  tone  about  evenly  divided  in  number. 

4.  Vowel  e  is  sung  higher  than  the  other  vowels,  i  and  a  next,  and  o 
and  u  lowest. 

5.  The  tonal  movement  is  very  smooth  and  legato. 

6.  There  is  rarely  a  rise  in  pitch  on  the  crescendo  and  when  it  occurs  it  is 
of  small  extent. 

7.  The  deviations  from  each  other  of  the  predominant  pitches  for  the 
same  tone  are  small  in  number  and  extent. 

8.  The  tendency  to  sing  above  or  below  the  predominant  pitch  is  very 
slight. 

9.  In  both  pure  and  tempered  intonation  M.  sings  sharp. 

Frances  Alda. — 1.  The  low  attack  predominates,  but  is  of  comparatively 
small  extent.  The  attack  from  above  is  clean  irrespective  of  the  position 
of  the  preceding  tone. 

2.  The  high  release  is  almost  constantly  present,  and  is  of  large  extent. 

3.  The  presence  of  a  predominant  tone  level  is  not  marked,  and  is  inter¬ 
mittent,  while  the  fluctuations  are  numerous  and  of  large  extent,  being 
about  evenly  divided  in  number  above  and  below  the  predominant  pitch. 

4.  The  vowel  tendency  is  erratic. 

5.  The  portamento  tonal  movement  is  markedly  present. 

6.  A  pitch  rise  in  the  crescendo  is  not  very  frequent  but  of  large  extent 
when  present. 

7.  The  deviations  from  each  other  of  the  predominant  pitches  for  the 
same  tone  are  very  numerous  and  of  large  extent.  Thus,  out  of  twelve  repe¬ 
titions  the  tone  d"  is  sung  on  nine  different  pitches  within  a  range  of  from 
565-589  dv.,  and  the  tone  e",  out  of  eleven  repetitions,  is  sung  on  seven 
different  pitches  within  the  range  639-659  dv. 

8.  The  maximum  deviation  below  is  larger  than  that  above  the  predom- 


239 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 

f 

inant  tone,  but  the  general  tendency  is  to  sing  sharp  in  terms  of  the  pre¬ 
dominant  tone. 

9.  In  both  pure  and  tempered  intonation  A.  sings  flat. 

Emma  Eames. — 1.  The  attack  as  a  whole  is  clean,  excepting  after  a  rest 
in  which  case  it  is  initiated  markedly  low.  A  high  attack  occurs  once  and  is 
of  very  small  extent. 

2.  The  release  is  usually  clean,  but  when  a  deviation  does  occur,  the  tone 
rises  slightly. 

3.  The  presence  of  a  predominant  tone  is  unusually  marked  and  con¬ 
tinuous,  the  fluctuations  being  few,  but  of  large  extent  when  they  occur,  the 
deviations  above  outnumbering  those  below. 

4.  No  constant  vowel  tendency  is  present. 

5.  Tonal  movement  is  in  the  form  of  a  slight  portamento. 

6.  No  tendency  for  the  tone  to  rise  in  the  crescendo  is  noticed. 

7.  The  deviations  from  each  other  of  the  predominant  pitches  for  the 
same  tone  are  of  large  extent  but  few  in  number. 

8.  The  tendency  to  sing  off  pitch  in  terms  of  predominant  pitch  is  very 
marked. 

9.  In  both  pure  and  tempered  intonation  E.  sings  sharp. 

General  conclusions  on  intonation 

1.  A  tone  is  almost  invariably  attacked  below  the  pitch  in¬ 
tended  when  it  is  preceded  by  a  lower  tone,  and  in  the  majority 
of  cases  it  is  released  above.  The  size  in  the  error  of  attack 
depends  on  the  distance  below  of  the  preceding  tone — the  greater 
the  distance,  the  greater  the  error.  The  largest  error  occurs 
when  the  tone  is  sung  after  a  rest.  The  size  of  the  error  also 
depends  on  the  duration  of  the  tone,  the  longer  the  duration  the 
larger  the  error.  When  the  preceding  tone  is  above  the  tone 
sung,  the  attack  is  clean.  The  high  release  is  independent  of  the 
succeeding  tone. 

The  cause  for  the  low  attack  may  lie  in  the  fact  that  a  time 
interval  elapses  before  the  intensity  of  breath  pressure  requisite 
for  the  production  of  a  tone  of  a  certain  pitch  is  fully  established. 
In  other  words,  the  singer  does  not  immediately,  on  striking  a 
tone,  set  up  a  tension  in  the  cords  adequate  for  the  production  of 
the  desired  pitch.  Though  this  swooping  up  to  a  tone  is  no  doubt 
at  times  intentional,  particularly  under  great  emotional  stress,  it 
is  evident  from  its  universality  that  the  phenomenon  is  to  a  certain 
extent  beyond  the  singer’s  control. 

The  high  release  may  be  due  to  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 


240 


MAX  SCHOEN 


singer  to  maintain  a  steady  pitch  to  the  very  end  of  the  tone, 
with  the  result  that  with  the  waning  of  breath  the  final  effort  is 
somewhat  over-reached. 

2.  A  tone  is  very  rarely  sustained  on  the  same  pitch  for  an 
interval  of  time  beyond  half  a  second,  the  number  and  extent  of 
the  deviations  depending  on  the  individual  characteristics  of  the 
singer. 

3.  Two  tones  of  the  same  pitch  and  of  equal  duration  are 
never  sung  twice  the  same  way;  they  vary  in  the  number  and 
the  extent  of  the  fluctuations  as  well  as  in  the  pitch  of  the  pre¬ 
dominant  tones. 

4.  The  vowel  quality  seems  to  have  but  an  insignificant 
effect  on  the  pitch  of  the  tone,  although  there  is  a  slight  tendency 
to  sing  the  vowel  e  highest,  a  and  i  n exf,  and  0  and  u  lowest. 

5.  The  five  singers  are  divisible  into  three  classes  in  the  mat¬ 
ter  of  tonal  steadiness  and  the  number  and  extent  of  the  fluctua¬ 
tions:  Melba  and  Gluck  having  the  steadiest  voices  with  the 
fewest  and  smallest  fluctuations,  Eames  having  a  steady  tone  with 
few  fluctuations,  but  of  marked  extent  when  they  occur,  while 
Alda  and  Destinn  manifest  unsteady  tones  with  fluctuations  large 
in  number  and  extent. 

6.  The  movement  from  tone  to  tone  is  predominantly  in  the 
form  of  glides,  but  varying  in  degree  for  the  different  singers, 
being  heavier  for  some  than  for  others. 

7.  A  tendency  for  a  rise  in  pitch  with  a  rise  in  intensity  is 
manifest  throughout. 

8.  There  exists  a  tendency  for  all  the  singers  to  sing  sharp 
in  the  sense  that  the  deviations  above  the  predominant  tone  are 
more  numerous  than  those  below,  but  the  maximum  deviations 
below  the  predominant  tone  are  always  larger  than  those  above. 

9.  The  singers  sing  in  neither  pure  nor  tempered  intonation, 
but  slightly  sharp  in  respect  to  both. 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


241 


PART  II.  THE  VIBRATO 

No  experimental  data  either  on  the  nature  or  the  significance 
of  the  vibrato  in  singing  are  available — a  strange  fact  in  view 
of  the  prominence  of  this  phenomenon  in  every  voice  manifesting 
a  singing  quality.  Even  the  little  speculative  literature  in  ex¬ 
istence  on  the  subject  is,  to  say  the  least,  confusing  and  contra¬ 
dictory. 

Recently  Mr.  Thomas  Edison  was  accredited  with  an  interview  (6)  to 
the  effect  that  out  of  approxmiately  3800  records  of  singers  examined  by  his 
force  there  were  but  22  who  sang  what  he  calls  pure  tones,  “without  ex¬ 
traneous  sounds  and  the  almost  universal  tremolo  effect.  .  .  .  Most  singers  can 
not  sustain  a  note  without  breaking  it  up  into  a  series  of  chatterings  or 
tremolos.  The  number  of  waves  varies  from  two  per  second  to  as  high  as 
twelve.  When  at  the  latter  rate,  the  chatter  can  just  be  heard  and  is  not 
very  objectionable.  If  this  defect  could  be  eliminated,  nothing  would  exceed 
the  beauty  of  the  human  voice,  but,  until  this  is  done,  there  will  be  only 
a  few  singers  in  a  century  who  can  emit  pure  notes  in  all  registers." 

Some  representative  expression's  of  opinion  on  this  vocal 
manifestation  from  singers  and  voice  teachers  may  be  given: 

“This  vibration  in  the  voice  should  not  be  confused  with  a  tremolo  which 
is,  of  course,  very  undesirable.  A  voice  without  vibrato  would  be  cold  and 
dead,  expressionless.  There  must  be  this  pulsing  quality  in  the  tone,  which 
carries  waves  of  feeling  on  it."  (3,  p.  145) 

“It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  describe  the  tremolo.  Five  out  of  every  six 
modern  singers  are  afflicted  with  it,  and  consequently  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  make-believe  that  the  tremolo  is  a  splendid  vehicle  for  the  expression  of 
sentiment  and  passion.  ...  It  may  be  pointed  out  that  all  great  singers  pre¬ 
serve  their  voices  much  longer  than  the  average  artists,  and  while  the  latter 
usually  show  the  tremolo,  the  former  invariably  never  do."  (19,  p.  25) 

“There  is  a  desirable  vibration  or  pulse  which  should  be  in  every  tone 
and  which  gives  it  life.  This  the  old  Italians  called  the  vibrato ;  it  is  quite 
different  from  the  tremolo.  The  vibrato  is  the  natural  pulse  or  rhythmic 
vibration  of  the  tone,  and  in  the  attempt  to  keep  the  voice  steady  this  must 
not  be  lost;  any  control  which  prevents  this  natural  vibrato  or  life-pulse  from 
entering  the  tone  is  as  bad,  though  not  so  obvious,  as  the  tremolo  itself."  (31, 
P-  85) 

‘The  vibrato  is  a  rhythmic  pulsation  of  the  voice.  It  often  appears  in  un¬ 
trained  voices ;  in  others  it  appears  during  the  process  of  cultivation.  Some 
have  thought  it  the  perfection  of  sympathetic  quality ;  others  deem  it  a  fault. 
— The  vibrato  is  caused  by  an  undulating  variation  of  pitch  or  power,  often 
both.  The  voice  does  not  hold  steadily  or  strictly  to  the  pitch,  and  according 
to  the  amount  of  the  variation  a  corresponding  vibrato,  or  tremolo,  is  pro¬ 
duced. — The  action  of  stringed  instruments  illustrates  this  statement.  The 


242 


MAX  SCHOEN 


finger  of  the  violinist  vibrates  on  the  string  by  rocking  rapidly  back  and 
forth  and  the  vibrato  is  the  result. — The  same  holds  true  of  the  human 
instrument.  By  variation  of  the  tension,  the  vocal  apparatus  sends  forth 
several  tones  in  alternation,  of  a  slightly  different  pitch,  which  together  pro¬ 
duce  the  effect. — Three  sources  are  ascribed  for  the  vibrato;  one  is  a  rapid, 
spasmodic  vibration  of  the  diaphragm  causing  variation  of  breath  pressure ; 
another  is  the  alternate  tension  and  relaxation  of  the  larynx  and  vocal 
cords;  a  third  is  that  commonest  of  faults — throat  stiffness.  Either  cause 
is  possible,  and  variation  in  the  pitch  or  intensity  of  the  tone  is  the  result. 
Sufficient  investigations  have  not  been  made  to  make  the  matter  certain, 
but  tremolo,  trembling  of  the  vocal  organs,  and  muscular  stiffness,  or  un¬ 
natural  tension  seem  to  go  together. — It  is  quite  possible  in  the  early  stages  of 
culture  so  to  train  the  voice  as  to  use  the  vibrato  or  not  at  all  at  will, 
but  if  not  early  controlled  this,  like  other  bad  habits,  gains  the  mastery. 
Excessive  vibrato  has  spoiled  many  good  voices.  It  is  not  a  fundamental 
quality  of  the  voice.  A  little  vibrato  may  occasionally  be  desirable  when 
properly  and  skillfully  used;  more  than  this  is  to  be  shunned  as  a  dangerous 
vice.”  (7,  pp.  80-81) 

“Thus,  certain  passions,  and  perhaps  all  passion  when  pushed  to  an  ex¬ 
treme,  produce  (probably  through  their  influence  over  the  action  of  the 
heart)  an  effect  the  reverse  of  which  has  been  described:  they  cause  a 
physical  prostration,  one  symptom  of  which  is  a  general  relaxation  of  the 
muscles,  and  a  consequent  trembling.  We  have  the  trembling  of  anger,  of 
fear,  of  hope,  of  joy;  and  the  vocal  muscles  being  implicated  with  the 
rest,  the  voice  too  becomes  tremulous.  Now,  in  singing,  this  tremulousness 
of  voice  is  effectively  used  by  some  vocalists  in  pathetic  passages;  sometimes 
indeed,  because  of  its  effectiveness,  too  much  used  by  them.”  (29,  p.  412) 

What  is  vibrato?  What  is  its  significance  in  the  singing 
voice?  What  is  its  general  physiological  cause?  Where  is  its 
physiological  seat?  And  what  is  the  secret  of  its  psychological 
effect?  It  was  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  experimental  data 
on  these  questions  that  the  folowing  study  was  undertaken. 

The  nature  of  the  vibrato 

The  determination  of  the  nature  of  this  vocal  manifestation 
involved  a  preliminary  investigation  along  two  specific  lines :  first, 
what  type  of  auditory  stimulus  would  produce  an  experience 
similar  to  that  of  the  vibrato  synthetically;  and,  second,  the 
behavior  of  the  tonoscope  under  tonal  manifestations  similar  to 
that  of  the  vibrato.  If  the  vibrato  could  be  reproduced  syn¬ 
thetically  and  the  mode  of  its  appearance  on  the  tonoscope  com¬ 
pared  with  that  of  the  actual  voice  vibrato,  the  comparison  would 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


243 


serve  as  a  clue  to  the  nature  of  the  phenomenon  under  considera¬ 
tion. 

The  vibrato  may  be  produced  instrumentally  by  (1)  a  tone 
that  oscillates  periodically  in  intensity,  (2)  a  tone  that  oscillates 
periodically  in  pitch  within  certain  pitch  limits,  and  (3)  a  com¬ 
bination  of  both.  An  intensity  oscillation  is  produced  by  sound¬ 
ing  two  tuning  forks  of  5  dv.  difference  into  a  resonator,  thus 
producing  the  phenomenon  of  beats,  or  by  sounding  a  single  tone 
into  a  resonator  and  passing  the  hand  in  front  of  its  mouth  at 
the  rate  of  five  or  six  times  a  second.  By  using  the  same  two 
forks  and  sounding  them  alternately  into  a  resonator  at  the  rate 
of  five  or  six  times  a  second  the  pitch  analogous  to  the  vibrato 
will  be  produced.  An  experiment  conducted  by  the  writer  on  a 
class  containing  twelve  musicians  of  long  experience  indicated 
clearly  that  within  certain  limits  the  human  ear  can  not  dis¬ 
tinguish  easily  between  a  pitch  and  an  intensity  oscillation, 
especially  when  the  fluctuations  take  place  rapidly  and  period¬ 
ically. 

In  so  far,  then,  as  its  effect  on  the  ear  is  concerned,  the  vibrato 
may  be  either  a  pitch  fluctuation,  an  intensity  fluctuation,  or  a 
combination  of  both.  When  registered  on  the  tonoscope  the  pul¬ 
sating  tone  discloses  to  the  eye  a  periodic  up  and  down  movement 
of  several  adjacent  rows  of  dots,  the  movement  being  syn¬ 
chronous  with  the  audible  pulsations.  Since  all  previous  studies 
on  the  tonoscope  concerned  themselves  with  a  tone  of  constant, 
or  relatively  constant,  pitch  and  intensity,  it  became  necessary 
for  the  present  purpose  to  make  a  comprehensive  study  of  the 
stroboscopic  effect  of  a  tone  of  varying  aspects  in  pitch  and  in¬ 
tensity.  Thus,  a  tone  may  be  (1)  constant  in  both  pitch  and 
intensity,  (2)  constant  for  one  of  these  and  fluctuate  in  the 
other,  (3)  constant  in  intensity  and  fluctuate  periodically  in  both 
pitch  and  intensity. 

Since  the  vibrato  is  essentially  a  tone  of  marked  periodic  pulsa¬ 
tions  we  shall  concern  ourselves  only  with  the  appearance  on  the 
tonoscope  under  the  types  of  periodic  pulsations  mentioned. 

A.  Intensity. — (1)  Two  tuning  forks,  99  dv.  and  100  dv.  re¬ 
spectively,  were  electrically  energized  and  made  to  speak  into  a 


244 


MAX  SCHOEN 


resonator  connected  by  a  rubber  tube  with  the  manometric  flame. 
The  result  is  that  when  the  two  tuning  forks  are  brought  to  the 
mouth  of  the  resonator  powerful  beats,  at  the  rate  of  one  per 
second,  are  heard.  The  manometric  flame  rises  and  sinks  in 
brightness  synchronously  with  the  beats  while  an  area  on  the 
tonoscope  that  embraces  a  section  above  and  below  the  two  gen¬ 
erating  tones  is  alternately  and  gradually  illumined  and  dark¬ 
ened,  the  period  of  illumination  lasting  longer  than  that  of  non¬ 
illumination.  No  oscillatory  movement  is  present,  but  a  periodic 
appearance  and  disappearance  of  the  drum  surface.  The  pitch  of 
the  tone  is  the  center  of  the  two  generating  tones. 

(2)  A  tuning  fork  of  100  dv.  electrically  energized  and 
speaking  into  a  resonator  connected  by  a  rubber  tube  with  the 
manometric  flame.  The  purpose  here  is  to  produce  a  tone  from 
a  single  source,  of  constant  pitch,  but  the  intensity  of  which 
may  be  interrupted  periodically.  This  is  accomplished  by  passing 
the  hand  in  front  of  the  mouth  of  the  resonator  at  any  rate  de¬ 
sired  by  the  experimenter,  thus  gradually  interrupting  the  tone 
at  equal  intervals.  The  manifestation  on  the  tonoscope  is  in 
every  detail  similar  to  that  described  in  1  above  except  that  the 
pitch  of  the  tone  registers  100  dv. 

B.  Pitch. — Two  tuning  forks  of  98  and  103  dv.  respectively, 
electrically  energized  and  connected  with  a  telephone  receiver 
made  into  a  manometric  flame.  A  shuttling  arrangement  makes 
it  possible  to  sound  each  tone  alternately  in  the  telephone  receiv¬ 
ing  while  shutting  out  the  other,  thus  producing  a  pitch  fluctuating 
tone.  As  tone  98  dv.  is  sounded,  the  row  of  dots  corresponding 
in  number  to  this  pitch  stands  rigidly  still  while  the  rows  to  its 
left  are  moving  downwards,  and  those  to  its  right  upwards. 
When  tone  103  dv.  is  presented,  row  103  stands  still  while  the 
rows  to  the  left  are  moving  down  and  those  to  the  right  are 
moving  up.  Now,  since  the  rows  between  the  two  tones  are  ex¬ 
posed  when  either  tone  is  registered,  and,  since  they  move  in 
different  directions  for  each  of  the  tones,  it  is  evident  that  when 
the  two  tones  are  alternately  registered  these  rows  will  move  up 
and  down,  the  speed  of  the  oscillation  depending  on  the  rate  with 
which  the  tones  are  interchanged.  We  have  here  an  effect  on  the 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


245 


tonoscope  where  two  rows  of  dots  are  seen  to  stand  still  alter¬ 
nately,  while  the  rows  between  them  oscillate  periodically  up  and 
down. 

It  now  remained  to  make  a  careful  study  of  the  contour  of 
the  voice  vibrato  on  the  tonoscope  and  to  ascertain  which  one 
of  the  forms  described  above  it  resembled.  For  this  purpose 
the  turn-table  of  the  phonograph  was  slowed  down  to  6  revolu¬ 
tions  per  minute,  which  produced  undulations  at  the  rate  of  ap¬ 
proximately  one  per  second,  while  a  capsule  attached  to  the  dia¬ 
phragm  of  the  reproducer  and  connected  with  the  ears  of  the 
experimenter  by  means  of  a  listening  tube  made  every  tone  sung 
plainly  audible  even  at  this  slow  speed.  When  this  slow  pulsa¬ 
tion  was  registered  on  the  tonoscope  a  single  glance  at  its  con¬ 
tour  made  it  evident  that  the  vibrato  was  a  pitch  undulation  of 
the  type  described  in  B.  One  difference,  however,  was  clearly 
evident  between  the  vibrato  of  the  voice  and  that  of  the  tuning 
forks;  namely,  that,  whereas  in  the  latter  the  rows  of  dots  be¬ 
tween  the  two  pitch  limits  appeared  and  disappeared  suddenly 
as  the  tone  was  switched  from  one  pitch  to  the  other,  in  the 
former  there  was  a  gradual  piling  up  of  the  rows  of  dots  in  the 
waving  form,  indicating  that  in  the  voice  vibrato  the  movement 
from  pitch  to  pitch  is  in  the  form  of  a  gradual  glide  while  in 
the  synthetic  vibrato,  as  is  evident,  the  movement  is  a  clear 
jump  from  one  range  of  the  fluctuation  to  the  other. 

We  conclude,  then,  that  one  of  the  factors  in  the  vibrato  is  a 
periodic  glide,  up  and  down,  of  the  sung  tone,  within  certain 
pitch  limits,  the  glide  being  synchronous  with  the  pulsations  as 
heard  by  the  ear. 

For  the  purpose  of  determining  the  range  of  the  pitch  changes 
in  the  vibrato  the  following  procedures  were  followed,  the  one 
procedure  serving  as  a  check  upon  the  others :  ( 1 )  All  rows 

within  the  range  of  the  vibrato  oscillate  up  and  down,  the  extent 
of  the  oscillation  of  each  row  depending  upon  its  proximity  to  the 
row  that  stands  still.  To  illustrate,  supposing  that  the  tone 
fluctuates  between  rows  128-138,  then  row  133,  the  central  row 
between  the  two  limits  would  undergo  the  largest  oscillation 
while  row  127  would  oscillate  least  when  the  tone  is  on  128 


246 


MAX  SCHOEN 


and  row  137  when  the  tone  is  on  138.  Consequently,  in  order 
to  determine  the  range  of  a  periodically  fluctuating  tone  it  is  only 
necessary  for  the  experimenter  to  observe  one  end  of  the  fluc¬ 
tuation  at  a  time  and  carefully  watch  for  the  last  row  that  has  an 
undulatory  motion.  The  pitch  is  one  row  below  this  last  oscillat¬ 
ing  line  when  the  lower  limit  is  observed  and  one  row  above  the 
last  oscillating  line  when  the  upper  limit  is  watched.  (2)  As 
stated  previously,  when  a  tone  of  constant  pitch  is  registered  on 
the  drum,  the  rows  to  the  left  of  the  tone  move  downwards  and 
those  to  the  right  move  upwards.  Therefore,  to  obtain  the  lower 
limit  of  the  periodic  pitch-changing  tone  the  experimenter  ob¬ 
serves  the  first  row  that  moves  downwards ;  the  pitch  is  then  one 
row  above.  For  the  upper  limit  he  observes  the  first  row  that 
moves  upwards,  and  then  the  pitch  is  one  row  below. 

An  assistant  was  seated  close  to  the  experimenter  to  write  down 
the  readings  as  these  were  called  out.  One  end  of  the  fluctuating 
tone  was  studied  at  a  time  and  its  pitch  determined  by  each  of 
the  methods  described.  The  readings  from  the  different  methods 
were  then  compared,  and  if  they  did  not  tally,  the  study  of  the 
same  tone  was  resumed.  Marked  facility  in  catching  accurately 
the  readings  in  a  few  observations  is  attained  after  practice. 

The  rate  of  the  vibrato  was  determined  by  counting  the  num¬ 
ber  of  undulations  in  the  tone  at  the  slow  speed  and  then  ascer¬ 
taining  carefully  the  actual  duration  of  the  tone  at  the  normal 
speed  of  the  phonograph,  78  revolutions  per  minute. 

To  ascertain  whether  intensity  functioned  in  any  manner  in 
the  vibrato,  recourse  was  had  to  a  vibrating  mirror  (15,  pp.  415- 
460). 

The  first  experiments  with  the  Rayleigh  disk  were  conducted 
on  the  living  voice.  The  observers  were  students  of  voice  and 
singers  from  the  University  School  of  Music.  The  singer  was 
instructed  to  cup  her  hand  around  the  rubber  tube  leading  to 
the  diaphragm  and  to  sing  a  tone  on  any  vowel  into  the  tube. 
In  all  cases,  whenever  a  pulsation  was  present  in  the  tone  the 
spot  of  light  would  oscillate  periodically  and  synchronously  with 
the  pulsation.  When  no  pulsation  was  heard  in  the  tone  the  spot 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


247 


of  light  would  become  elongated  and  remain  relatively  rigid 
throughout  the  duration  of  the  tone. 

A  detailed  study  of  the  intensity  factor  in  the  vibrato  was  next 
undertaken  for  the  five  singers.  The  tube  leading  from  the  disk 
diaphragm  was  connected  with  the  capsule  of  the  phonograph  re¬ 
producer  while  a  millimeter  screen  was  placed  one  metre  from 
the  disk.  Repeated  attempts  to  get  an  intensity  response  from 
the  recorded  voice  showed  that  the  disk  would  respond  only  to  a 
certain  range  of  pitches  for  a  given  speed.  It  therefore  became 
necessary  to  change  the  speed  of  the  phonograph  for  different 
tests  of  pitch.  This  proved  to  be  no  disadvantage,  however, 
since  the  main  purpose  was  to  make  comparison  of  the  extent  of 
the  intensity  fluctuations  for  the  same  tone  for  each  of  the  five 
singers.  It  was  thus  possible  to  measure  the  intensity  of  most  of 
the  tones  in  the  composition  in  terms  of  amplitude  of  oscillation 
in  the  image  on  the  screen.  To  obtain  a  response  from  the 
highest  tones  the  turn  table  revolved  at  a  speed  of  about  11  revo¬ 
lutions  per  minute,  giving  very  slow  oscillations  on  the  screen. 
This  made  it  possible  to  observe  the  form  of  the  intensity  pulsa¬ 
tion  in  the  same  manner  as  pitch  was  observed  in  the  tonoscope. 
The  same  tone  could  then  be  compared  wave  by  wave  for  both 
pitch  and  intensity  and  the  relation  between  the  two  deduced. 

Conclusions. — The  graphs  in  Figure  2  show  the  range  of  the 
vibrato  for  pitch  and  intensity  for  characteristic  individual  tones 
for  the  highest,  middle,  and  lowest  ranges  of  the  composition, 
namely  b'",  d",  and  f'.  To  the  right  of  the  individual  tone  a 
norm  for  the  pitch  extent  of  the  vibrato  for  that  range  is  shown. 
The  pitch  extent  is  given  in  terms  of  vibrations  and  part  of  a 
whole  tone,  each  square  representing  1/10  of  a  tone,  and  the 
intensity  in  tefms  of  millimeters,  each  square  being  equal  to 
10  mm.  The  absolute  intensity  of  the  tone  is  indicated  and  also 
the  extent  to  which  there  is  an  intensity  fluctuation.  The  time 
element  is  represented  horizontally,  each  square  measuring  1/6 
of  a  second.  The  vibrato  pulsations  are  represented  as  equal 
(1/6  sec.)  because  this  rate  is  so  nearly  uniform  that  variation 
in  successive  waves  in  different  notes  and  for  different  singers 
did  not  seem  to  be  significant. 


248 


MAX  SCHOEN 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


249 


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250 


MAX  SCHOEN 


An  interpretation  of  the  graphic  representation  in  Fig.  2  of 
the  pitch  and  intensity  undulations  for  one  tone  follows : 

The  tone  is  the  third  one,  counting  from  the  left  to  right, 
for  Singer  G. 

The  tone  begins  at  375  dv.,  and  during  the  first  1/6  of  a  sec¬ 
ond  rises  to  about  382  dv.,  and  drops  back  to  375  dv.,  having 
described  a  wave  1/5  of  a  tone  in  extent.  During  the  next  1/6 
of  a  second  the  tone  describes  a  wave  from  375  dv.  to  381  dv. 
and  back  to  375  dv.,  while  during  the  third  1/6  of  a  second  the 
first  wave  is  repeated.  In  the  fourth  time  interval  the  tone  rises 
from  375  dv.  to  376  dv.,  with  an  undulation  to  382  dv.,  while 
in  the  next  period  the  tone  drops  back  to  375  dv.  and  the  first 
wave  recurs  twice.  During  the  eighth  interval  the  tone  rises 
to  368  dv.,  and  we  see  the  vibrato  diminishing  in  extent  until 
the  tone  ends  on  374  dv. 

As  compared  with  the  standard  pitch  shown  by  the  dotted 
line  we  see  that  the  tone  is  sung  slightly  sharp,  if  the  lower  limit 
of  the  fluctuations  is  considered  the  pitch  of  the  tone. 

The  average  extent  of  the  vibrato  at  the  low  range  of  the 
voice  is  slightly  over  1/5  of  a  tone,  as  indicated  by  the  heavy 
vertical  line  to  the  right. 

In  the  lower  curve  we  see  the  intensity  oscillations  of  the 
same  tone,  with  the  maximum  intensity  of  that  tone  represented 
by  the  heavy  vertical  line  to  the  right.  In  the  case  of  this  tone 
we  note  that  not  only  are  the  intensity  changes  coordinated  with 
the  pitch  changes  in  time  and  extent,  but  that  the  intensity  oscil¬ 
lation  is  so  marked  that  the  tone  practically  dies  out  for  each 
vibrato  pulsation.  The  graph  is  not  intended  to  indicate  the 
relative  prominence  of  the  pitch  and  the  intensity  fluctuations, 
by  showing  the  latter  on  a  smaller  scale.  Psychologically,  the 
intensity  fluctuation  is  often  as  clearly  perceptible  as  the  pitch 
fluctuation  in  a  good  voice  vibrato. 

A  study  of  the  pitch  and  intensity  data  yields  the  following 
conclusions  on  the  nature  and  general  characteristics  of  the 
vibrato : 

1.  The  vibrato  is  a  pitch-intensity  fluctuation. 

2.  The  pitch  and  intensity  waves  are  not  only  synchronous, 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING  251 

but  also  coordinate,  a  large  pitch  wave  being  accompanied  by  a 
large  intensity  wave,  and  vice  versa,  rise  in  pitch  coinciding  with 
increase  in  intensity. 

3.  The  absolute  intensity  of  the  tone  does  not  seem  to  have 
any  effect  on  the  range  of  the  vibrato. 

4.  In  terms  of  vibrations  the  extent  of  the  vibrato  is  about 
the  same  throughout  the  entire  range  of  the  voice,  being  10,  11, 
and  12  dv.  for  the  lowest,  middle,  and  highest  ranges,  respect¬ 
ively,  or  0.25,  0.15,  0.09  in  terms  of  part  of  a  whole  tone. 

5.  There  are  marked  individual  variations  for  both  the  extent 
and  the  manner  of  manifestation  of  the  vibrato. 

6.  The  rate  of  the  vibrato  is  approximately  6  oscillations  per 
second,  and  is  approximately  constant. 

The  significance  of  the  vibrato 

For  the  purpose  of  determining  the  significance  of  the  vibrato 
in  vocal  expression  the  voices  of  twenty  persons  were  studied, 
ranging  in  age  from  fourteen  years  to  middle  age  and  in  vocal 
ability  from  the  monotone  to  a  celebrated  concert  artist.  These 
observers  were  divided  into  four  classes,  as  follows:  (1)  the 
monotones;  (2)  untrained,  non-musical  voices,  (3)  untrained, 
musical  voices,  (4)  trained,  musical  voices.  A  careful  study  of 
these  classes  of  voices  on  the  tonoscope  yielded  the  following 
conclusions : 

1.  The  monotones:  To  the  ear  the  voice  sounds  dull,  hard 
and  strident.  On  the  tonoscope  the  tone  of  the  monotone  regis¬ 
ters  almost  rigid,  non-fluctuating. 

2.  The  untrained,  non-musical  voice:  The  tone  sounds  dull, 
but  not  as  hard  and  strident  as  in  the  monotone.  The  tonoscope 
shows  a  tone  from  this  voice  to  fluctuate  irregularly  above  and 
below  a  predominant  pitch  within  two  to  four  vibrations. 

3.  The  untrained,  musical  voice:  The  tone  sounds  bright  in 
comparison  with  those  of  (1)  and  (2),  and  a  slight  pulsation  is 
clearly  heard.  The  pulsation  has  a  marked  periodicity  of  about  6 
pulsations  per  second.  Only  in  the  case  of  one  singer  did  the 
rate  of  the  pulsation  reach  13  per  second.  When  observed  on  the 
tonoscope  the  following  phenomena  are  seen  to  take  place  in 


252 


MAX  SCHOEN 


this  type  of  voice:  (i)  a  progressive  fluctuation  in  pitch  above 
and  below  a  predominant  pitch,  and  (2)  a  periodic  rise  and  fall 
in  pitch  ranging  in  extent  from  six  to  twelve  vibrations,  and  syn¬ 
chronous  with  the  audible  pulsations.  Not  every  tone  sung, 
however,  shows  the  periodic  fluctuations.  But  whenever  a  pulsa¬ 
tion  is  present  the  periodic  fluctuation  is  also  invariably  present. 

4.  The  trained  musical  voice :  For  this  voice  the  observations 
reported  for  class  (3),  with  the  addition  that  both  the  pulsations 
and  the  pitch  fluctuations  are  more  markedly  present,  hold. 

To  summarize. — (1)  In  the  musical  tone  of  both  trained  and 
untrained  voices  a  periodic  pulsation  is  heard.  (2)  the  rate  of 
the  pulsation  is  about  6  per  second.  (3)  When  the  pulsating 
tone  is  registered  on  the  tonoscope  it  is  seen  to  have  a  periodic 
pitch  fluctuation  of  from  six  to  twelve  vibrations  in  extent.  (4) 
This  pitch  fluctuation  is  synchronous  with  the  audible  pulsations. 
(5)  This  periodic  fluctuation  appears  above,  and  in  addition  to, 
a  progressive  fluctuation.  (6)  When  the  singer  was  told  to  con¬ 
trol  the  pulsation  in  the  voice,  that  is,  to  try  to  eliminate  it,  she 
could  do  so  only  for  a  fraction  of  a  second  and  reported  that  it 
was  very  difficult  to  sing  alone  under  such  conditions.  (7)  The 
vibrato  is  a  fundamental  attribute  of  an  effective  singing  voice. 

Measurement  of  the  vibrato  in  famous  singers 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  interpret  the  significance  of  a 
conclusion  arrived  at  in  the  preceding  section,  namely,  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  marked  individual  variations  not  only  in  the  extent  of 
the  vibrato  but  particularly  in  the  manner  of  its  presence  in  the 
voices  of  the  five  singers.  An  analysis  of  the  individual  charac¬ 
teristics  gives  the  following  results : 

Melba. — The  vibrato  is  constantly  present,  with  an  average 
amplitude  of  10  vibrations.  The  voice  has  a  marked  uniformity 
and  constancy  of  timbre  and  pitch  throughout  the  entire  range  of 
the  composition. 

Gluck. — The  vibrato  is  constantly  present  in  every  tone  with 
an  average  extent  of  13  vibrations.  Its  presence  is  most  marked 
in  the  middle  and  low  ranges  and  least  in  the  highest  range  of 
the  composition. 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


253 


Eames. — The  vibrato  is  intermittent,  being  present  in  some 
tones  and  absent  from  others,  as  well  as  present  in  one  part  of 
a  tone  and  not  in  another  part.  When  the  latter  case  occurs  the 
tone  usually  begins  without  the  vibrato  and  ends  with  a  vibrato. 
The  average  range  is  6  vibrations.  The  voice  as  a  whole,  as  well 
as  single  tones,  lacks  uniformity  in  timbre.  The  vibrato  is 
mostly  absent  from  the  highest  tones  of  the  composition. 

Alda. — The  vibrato  is  present  in  every  tone,  but  is  intermit¬ 
tent.  It  has  an  average  extent  of  8  vibrations,  but  is  quite  vari¬ 
able  in  the  same  tone.  This  gives  the  tone  an  effect  of  constantly 
changing  timbre. 

Destinn. — The  tone  almost  invariably  begins  minus  the  vibrato 
and  ends  with  the  vibrato.  The  effect  on  the  ear  is  that  of  a  tone 
beginning  with  one  timbre  and  ending  on  another.  The  average 
extent  of  the  vibrato  is  16  vibrations. 

General  conclusions  on  the  vibrato 

1.  The  vibrato  is  a  fundamental  attribute  of  the  artistically 
effective  singing  voice  in  that  it  is  a  medium  for  the  conveyance 
of  emotion  in  vocal  expression. 

2.  The  vibrato  is  a  manifestation  of  the  general  neuro-muscu- 
lar  condition  that  characterizes  the  singing  organism. 

3.  The  psychological  effect  of  the  vibrato  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  human  ear  has,  because  of  the  behavior  of 
muscle  under  emotional  stress,  come  to  associate  a  trembling  with 
emotional  experiences. 

4.  The  voice  that  possesses  the  most  constant  vibrato,  con¬ 
stant  in  its  presence  in  the  tones  throughout  the  range  of  the 
singer’s  voice,  and  of  an  amplitude  and  an  intensity  not  obtrusive 
to  the  ear,  but  of  sufficient  intensity  to  be  easily  audible,  has  the 
best  effect  on  the  hearer,  provided  the  other  factors  that  enter 
into  artistic  singing  are  present. 

5.  The  rate  of  the  vibrato  is  relatively  constant,  of  approxi¬ 
mately  six  pulsations  per  second,  with  an  average  amplitude  of 
eleven  vibrations  for  the  five  singers  here  studied. 

6.  The  intensity  fluctuations  are  synchronous  with  the  pitch 


254 


MAX  SCHOEN 


fluctuations  wave  by  wave  for  both  rate  and  extent,  the  average 
intensity  amplitude  for  the  five  singers  being  13  mm. 

The  physiology  and  psychology  of  vibrato 

It  is  well  known  that  the  nervous  discharge  accompanying  feel¬ 
ing  of  any  kind  is  both  diffused  and  restricted.  The  diffused 
discharge  serves  as  the  measure  of  the  intensity  of  the  emotion 
and  its  effect  on  the  muscles  is  in  an  inverse  ratio  to  their  size 
and  the  weights  of  the  parts  to  which  they  are  attached.  (30,  p. 
545.)  It  thus  happens  that  a  feeble  wave  of  nervous  excitement 
will  manifest  itself  most  in  the  muscle  or  muscles  where  it  meets 
with  least  resistance.  Thus  in  man  it  will  act  first  on  the  delicate 
muscles  of  the  voica  and  the  small  facial  muscles,  and  then  the 
arms,  legs,  and  the  trunk.  In  the  restricted  discharge  we  are  deal¬ 
ing  with  the  production  of  a  special  effect  due,  in  the  words  of 
Spencer  (30,  p.  545),  “to  the  relations  established  in  the  course 
of  evolution  between  particular  feelings  and  particular  sets  of 
muscles  habitually  brought  into  play  for  the  satisfaction  of  them, 
and  partly  due  to  kindred  relations  between  the  muscular  actions 
and  the  conscious  motives  existing  at  the  moment.”  It  seems, 
then,  that  while  every  emotion  will  have  a  general  effect  on  the 
entire  musculature  of  the  organism,  its  effect  is  marked  particu¬ 
larly  upon  one  set  of  muscles,  the  specific  set  of  muscles  depending 
on  the  nature  and  the  quality  of  the  emotion. 

Schafer  (21,  pp.  m-117),  in  experimenting  upon  the  tetanic 
nature  of  voluntary  muscular  contraction,  has  shown  that  during 
the  whole  extent  of  time  that  the  contraction  of  skeletal  muscle 
in  man  is  maintained  as  a  result  of  the  excitation  of  any  part  of 
the  nerve  center,  the  muscle  responds  by  undulations  at  an  average 
rate  of  about  10  per  second.  Further,  the  rate  of  the  rhythm 
is  independent  of  the  rate  of  excitation  provided  the  frequency  of 
excitation  is  above  10  per  second.  The  experiments  also  showed 
clearly  that  although  the  rate  of  discharge  is  uniform  and  con¬ 
stant,  the  amplitude  of  the  oscillations  is  irregular,  being  much 
more  marked  in  some  individuals  than  in  others.  In  the  words  of 
Sherrington  (22,  pp.  43-44),  “The  rhythm  of  discharge  from  the 
motor  cell,  as  far  as  undulations  noted  indicate  rhythmic  re- 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


255 


sponse,  are  totally  different  in  rhythm  from  that  of  the  action 
induced  in  the  afferent  cell  by  the  stimulation  applied.  .  .  In  such 
cases,  therefore,  the  rhythm  of  the  end-effect  indicates  that  in 
transmission  along  the  reflex  arc  the  impulses  generated  at  the 
receptive  end  of  the  arc  are  not  actually  passed  on  from  one  cell 
element  to  another  in  the  arc,  but  that  new  impulses  with  a  dif¬ 
ferent  period  are  generated  in  the  course  of  the  reflex  conduc¬ 
tion.  ”  The  extreme  variations  obtained  by  Horsely  and  Schafer 
for  the  rhythm  of  motor  discharge,  per  second,  were  from  8  to  13. 
The  same  authors  also  state  that  occasionally  the  regularity  of 
the  undulations  is  interrupted  by  a  longer  and  larger  wave  usually 
covering  the  extent  of  two  of  the  smaller  undulations — an  occur¬ 
rence  which,  they  claim,  is  probably  due  to  a  more  complete  sum¬ 
mation  than  usual  of  the  effects  of  two  successive  nervous  im¬ 
pulses. 

Let  us  now  inquire  further  into  the  nature  of  muscular  dis¬ 
charge  under  particular  conditions. 

In  1904  Gordon  Holmes  (13,  pp.  327-375)  published  an  ac¬ 
count  of  certain  tremors  in  organic  cerebral  lesions.  His  obser¬ 
vations  are  of  peculiar  interest  in  relation  to  the  vibrato.  Holmes 
defines  tremor  as  “consisting  in  an  involuntary  oscillation  of  any 
part  of  the  body  around  any  plane,  such  oscillation  being  either 
regular  or  irregular  in  rate  and  in  amplitude,  and  due  to  the  alter¬ 
nate  action  of  groups  of  muscles  and  their  antagonists."  In 
summarizing  his  observations  on  seven  cases  of  tremor  the  author 
states  that : 

“The  tremor  consists  in  a  series  of  involuntary  oscillations  of 
any  part  of  a  limb,  due  to  the  alternate  contractions  of  one  group 
of  muscles  and  its  antagonists,  of  slow  rate,  varying  in  rapidity 
from  3  to  5  oscillations  per  second,  in  all  cases  more  or  less 
regular  in  rate,  while  limited  to  any  one  group  of  muscles,  in  some 
cases  absolutely  so;  generally  coarse,  i.e.,  of  large  amplitude; 
with  a  periodical  rhythmical  increase  and  decrease  of  the  range, 
or  irregular. 

“In  no  case  did  it  persist  during  sleep  ...  it  also  ceased  when 
the  limb  lay  at  complete  rest,  so  supported  that  each  segment  of 
its  segments  was  individually  supported.  In  each  case  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  gravity  on  its  production  and  existence  was  empha- 


256 


MAX  SCHOEN 


sized;  any  part  of  the  limb  allowed  to  hang  unsupported  was  in 
some  cases  invariably,  in  all  cases  frequently,  affected  by  tremor. 
This  would  seem  to  point  to  a  certain  condition  of  tone  of  the 
muscle  being  essential  to,  or  at  least  concerned  in,  its  patho¬ 
genesis.  .  . 

“In  each  case,  too,  it  was  observed  that  the  psychical  state  ex¬ 
erted  considerable  influence  on  the  intensity  and  character  of  the 
tremor;  it  always  increased  with  any  agitation  or  excitement  of 
the  patient,  and  diminished  as  the  patient  again  became  com¬ 
posed  and  calm/’ 

Summarizing  these  facts  in  their  bearing  upon  the  vibrato  of 
the  singer  it  is  evident  that  the  vibrato  is  a  phenomenon  in 
every  respect  similar  to  the  tremor  here  described.  The  tremor 
is  of  constant  rate  but  varies  in  amplitude,  so  is  the  vibrato;  the 
tremor  is  beyond  the  control  of  the  patient,  so  is  the  vibrato;  it 
only  occurs  when  the  muscle  is  under  slight  strain,  so  does  the 
vibrato;  it  is  about  half  the  rate  of  normal  muscular  discharge, 
so  is  the  vibrato. 

We  may  then  summarize  the  foregoing  facts  in  their  bearing 
upon  the  vibrato  as  follows: 

Singing  is  essentially  an  emotional  act,  involving  the  neuro¬ 
muscular  mechanism  or  muscles  functionally  connected  with  this 
specific  type  of  emotional  expression,  the  whole  act  involving 
the  usual  type  of  muscular  response  to  stimulation  character¬ 
istic  of  skeletal  muscle.  Further,  that  the  neuro-muscular  ap¬ 
paratus  of  the  singing  organism  is  peculiar  in  kind,  in  that,  to  a 
certain  extent  it  manifests  those  phenomena  of  muscle  pathology 
found  in  the  tremor,  in  that  the  vocal  muscle,  under  tension, 
brought  about  as  a  result  of  the  emotional  excitement  involved 
in  singing,  responds  with  a  rhythm  of  muscular  discharge  at  a 
rate  half  of  that  found  in  the  normal  state,  and  that  this  tremor 
is  manifested  particularly  in  that  organ  which  is  functionally 
connected  with  vocal  emotional  expression,  the  larynx. 

It  now  remains  for  us  to  more  specifically  ascertain  the  seat 
of  the  vibrato,  whether  the  pulsation  is  essentially  a  pitch  fluctua¬ 
tion  and  therefore  has  its  seat  in  the  vocal  cords,  or  whether 
essentially  an  intensity  fluctuation  located  in  the  resonance  mech- 


THE  PITCH  FACTOR  IN  ARTISTIC  SINGING 


25  7 


anism.  Some  facts  concerning  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
larynx  will  yield  a  plausible  theory. 

The  larynx  is  the  vibrating  organ  of  the  voice.  It  is  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  tongue  and  is  so  closely  connected  with  it  by  at¬ 
tachment  to  the  hyoid  bone  to  which  the  tongue  is  also  attached 
that  it  is  capable  only  of  slight  movement  independent  of  that 
organ;  consequently  it  must  move  with  the  tongue  in  articula¬ 
tion. 

Two  types  of  movements  of  the  larynx  have  been  experimen¬ 
tally  determined  (16,  pp.  197-2 12 )  :  movements  of  its  single 
parts  towards  each  other,  and  shifts  of  the  larynx  in  toto.  Here 
the  latter  movement  is  of  interest. 

The  following  figure  from  Meitner  (16,  p.  199)  represents 
the  possible  movement  directions  of  the  normally  moving  larynx 
in  deglutition,  phonation,  and  forced  respiration.  N  represents 
the  static  zero  point,  the  arrow  ES  the  direction  of  the  forced 
respiratory  movement,  the  swallowing  and  phonation  movements 
for  high  vowels;  the  arrow  JO  the  direction  of  the  forced  inspira¬ 
tion  and  phonation  movements  for  low  vowels. 

t  ES 


N 


JO  J 

What  is  significant  for  our  purpose  here  is  the  fact  that  the 
larynx  is  not  stationary  in  phonation,  but  that  its  position  shifts 
with  a  change  in  pitch,  or  what  is  the  same,  that  a  change  in 
larynx  position  means  a  change  in  the  pitch  of  the  sound.  Tak¬ 
ing  this  fact  into  account,  plus  the  anatomical  and  physiological 
facts  already  mentioned,  namely,  (1)  the  anatomical  relation  be¬ 
tween  tongue  and  larynx,  (2)  the  nature  of  the  vibrato,  a  pitch- 
intensity  oscillation,  (3)  the  emotional  nature  of  the  act  of  sing¬ 
ing,  (4)  the  action  of  muscle  under  emotional  stress,  we  may  con¬ 
clude  that  the  muscle  or  muscles  holding  the  larynx  in  suspen¬ 
sion  during  the  emission  of  a  tone  undulate  periodically  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  tremor,  this  undulation  causing  the  small 
pitch  changes  observed  in  the  tone,  while  the  coordinated  move¬ 
ments  of  the  tongue  bring  about  the  periodic  change  in  the  reso¬ 
nance  box  and  cause  synchronous  intensity  changes. 


258 


MAX  SCHOEN 


The  foregoing  facts  point  to  the  following  conclusions  on  the 
physiology  of  the  vibrato :  ( i )  The  vibrato  is  due  to  a  neuro¬ 

muscular  condition  characteristic  of  the  singing  organism.  (2) 
The  vibrato  is  a  periodic  pitch-intensity  phenomenon.  (3)  Its 
specific  seat  is  in  the  muscle  or  muscles  controlling  the  move¬ 
ments  of  the  larynx  in  phonation. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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2.  Beaunis,  H.  Muscle  Sense  in  Singing.  Am.  J.  of  Psychol., 

1887-1888,  1,  205. 

3.  Brower,  H.  Vocal  Mastery.  New  York;  Stokes,  1920. 

4.  Bukofzer,  M.  Ueber  Bezieheungen  des  Ansatzohres  zur 

Hohe  des  gesungenen  Tones.  Die  Stimme,  1906-1907,  1, 

34-39* 

5.  Dunlap,  H.  Tonal  volume  and  pitch.  J.  Exp.  Psychol., 

1916,1,83. 

6.  Edison,  Thomas.  An  Interview  with  Thomas  Edison  re¬ 

garding  the  imperfections  of  the  human  voice.  American 
Magazine,  March,  1921. 

7.  Fillebrown,  Thomas.  Resonance  in  Singing  and  Speak¬ 

ing.  Boston:  Oliver  Ditson,  1911. 

8.  Flatau,  Th.  S.,  and  Gutzmann,  H.  Neue  Versuche  zur 

Physiologie  des  Gesanges.  Archiv  f.  Laryn.,  1904,  16, 
11-30. 

9.  Gurney,  Edmund.  The  Power  of  Sound.  London :  Smith, 

Elder  &  Co.,  1880. 

10.  Guttman,  A.  Zur  Psychophysik  des  Gesanges.  Zt.  f. 

Psychol,  u.  Psysiol.  d.  Sinnes.,  1913,  53,  161-176. 

11.  Gutzmann,  H.  A.  R.  Psychologie  der  Stimme  und  Sprache. 

Braunschweig,  1909. 

12.  Hahn,  R.  L'art  du  chant:  Pourquoi  chante-on?  J.  de 

V University  des  Annales,  1914,  1,  5. 

13.  Holmes,  Gordon.  On  Certain  Tremors  in  Organic  Cereb¬ 

ral  Lesion.  Brain,  1904,  27,  327-375. 

14.  Isaacs,  Elcanon.  The  Nature  of  the  Rhythm  Experience. 

Psychol.  Rev.,  1920,  27,  270-299. 

15.  Kennelly,  A.  E.,  and  Taylor,  H.  O.  Vibrating  Tele¬ 

phone  Diaphragms.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  1916,  55,  415-460. 


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259 


16.  Meitner,  Gisela.  Beitrag  Zur  Pathologie  der  Kehlkopf- 

bewegungen.  Monatsch.  f.  Ohrenheilk.,  1907,  41,  197- 
212. 

17.  Merry,  Glen  N.  Voice  Inflection  in  Speech,  (in  this  vol¬ 
ume.) 

18.  Miller,  Dayton  C.  The  Science  of  Musical  Sounds.  New 

York:  Macmillan,  1916. 

19.  Reeves,  Sims.  The  Art  of  Singing.  London:  Chappell  & 

Co. 

20.  Rutz,  O.  Musik,  Wort  und  Korper  als  Gemutsausdruck. 

Leipzig,  191 1. 

21.  Schafer,  E.  A.  On  the  Rhythm  of  Muscular  Response  to 

Impulses  in  Man.  /.  of  Physiol .,  1886,  7,  m-117. 

22.  Sherrington,  C.  S.  The  Integrative  Action  of  the  Ner¬ 

vous  System.  New  York:  Scribner,  1906. 

23.  Scripture,  E.  W.  Elements  of  Experimental  Phonetics. 

New  York,  Scribner,  1902. 

24.  Sennon  and  Horsley.  An  Experimental  Investigation  of 

the  Central  Motor  Innervation  of  the  Larynx.  Proc.  Roy. 
Soc.,  London,  1890,  43,  187. 

25.  Seashore,  Carl  E.  The  Psychology  of  Musical  Talent. 

Boston:  Silver  Burdett  &  Co.,  1919. 

26.  Seashore,  Carl  E.  Seeing  Yourself  Sing.  Science ,  N.  S., 

1916,  43,  592-596. 

27.  Seashore,  Carl  E.  The  Tonoscope.  Univ.  of  Iowa  Stud. 

in  Psychol.,  VI,  1-12. 

28.  Seashore,  Carl  E.  The  Measure  of  a  Singer.  Science, 

1912,  201-212. 

29.  Spencer,  Herbert.  The  Origin  and  Function  of  Music,  in 

Essays,  Scientific,  Political,  and  Speculative,  Vol.  II.  New 
York:  Appleton,  1909. 

30.  Spencer,  Herbert.  Principles  of  Psychology,  Vol.  II. 

New  York:  Appleton,  1909. 

31.  Zay,  Henry..  Practical  Psychology  of  Voice  and  Life. 

Boston:  Schirmer,  1917. 


VOLUNTARY  CONTROL  OF  THE  INTENSITY 

OF  SOUND 

By 

Dorothea  Emeline  Wickham 

Problem. — The  aim  of  this  investigation  is  to  establish  a 
standard  test  for  musical  “touch.”  By  musical  “touch”  is 
meant  the  more  or  less  voluntary  control  of  intensity  of  sound 
in  music,  whether  the  same  be  vocal  or  instrumental.  Musical 
interpretation  and  expression  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon  the 
difference  in  intensity  of  sound,  and  the  degree  of  voluntary 
control  of  this  intensity  may  be  regarded  as  a  measure  of  musical 
touch.  Touch  involves  variations  in  pitch,  timbre,  volume,  and 
time,  but  these  are  secondary  to  and  usually  derived  from  varia¬ 
tions  in  intensity. 

Self-expression  through  the  intensity  of  sound  rests  primarily 
upon  two  factors,  viz.,  intensity  discrimination  and  precision  in 
the  control  of  voluntary  movement.  The  solution  of  our  pro¬ 
blem  might  be  approached  by  studying  each  of  these  separately, 
or  by  taking  a  measure  of  the  capacity  as  a  whole,  and  correlating 
with  achievement.  The  latter  is  the  method  followed. 

Again,  we  have  a  choice  of  setting  this  test  for  the  operation 
of  a  particular  instrument,  such  as  piano  or  violin,  or  making  a 
generic  test  by  employing  a  non-musical  instrument.  The 
latter  method  was  adopted  because  it  lends  itself  to  a  more  ac¬ 
curate  test  and  is  free  from  the  effect  of  training  in  a  specific 
instrument,  the  attempt  being  to  set  the  conditions  such  that  the 
test  would  measure  the  general  capacity  involved  as  a  common 
factor  in  regulating  the  intensity  of  sound  by  either  voice  or  in¬ 
strument. 

The  test  does,  however,  not  consider  the  motives  for  expres¬ 
sion  through  intensity  such  as  feeling,  imagination,  or  knowl¬ 
edge.  It  merely  registers  the  capacity  to  control  intensity. 


VOLUNTARY  CONTROL  OF  THE  INTENSITY  SOUND  261 

Apparatus. — A  modification  of  the  Seashore  audiometer,1  as 
shown  in  Fig.  A,2  was  used.  It  differs  from  the  original  mainly 
in  that  it  is  made  to  produce  stronger  sounds,  the  range  being 
from  inaudibility  to  a  sound  which  is  disagreeably  loud  to  the 
normal  ear.  There  are  thirty-five  steps  in  intensity  determined 
as  in  the  original  by  varying  the  number  of  turns  in  the  secondary 
coil,  as  shown  in  Table  I.  where,  after  the  first  few  steps,  the 
increment  is  one-fourth  and  the  coils  are  cumulative.  The  re¬ 
sulting  increments  of  intensity  of  sound  are  approximately 
equally  perceptible.  The  primary  circuit  is  interrupted  by  a 
100  dv.  tuning  fork.  There  are  two  sliding  contact  riders,  one 
for  the  observer  and  one  for  the  experimenter,  mounted  one  on 
each  side  of  the  contact  points  so  that  any  desired  intensity  within 
the  range  of  the  instrument  may  be  produced  by  either  contact 
operator.  The  sound  is  heard  in  a  telephone  receiver. 


TABLE 

I.  Values  for  the 

audiometer 

scale 

Number  of  Turns 

Number  of  Turns 

Step 

Increment 

Total 

Step 

Increment 

Total 

1 

I 

1 

19 

25 

123 

2 

1 

2 

20 

31 

154 

3 

1 

3 

21 

39 

193 

4 

1 

4 

22 

48 

241 

5 

1 

5 

23 

60 

301 

6 

I 

6 

24 

75 

376 

7 

2 

8 

25 

94 

470 

8 

2 

10 

26 

118 

588 

9 

3 

13 

27 

147 

735 

10 

3 

16 

28 

184 

919 

11 

4 

20 

29 

230 

1149 

12 

5 

25 

30 

287 

1436 

13 

6 

31 

3 1 

359 

1/94 

14 

8 

39 

32 

449 

2244 

15 

10 

49 

33 

56i 

2803 

16 

13 

62 

34 

701 

3506 

17 

16 

78 

35 

877 

4586 

18 

20 

98 

Procedure. — The  object  to  be  attained  with  the  instrument  is 
to  produce  a  quick  glide  through  a  series  of  graded  intensities  of 
sound  up  to  a  desired  step,  which  shall  then  be  sounded  three 
times  as  a  standard,  and  to  enable  the  observer  to  perform  the 
same  act  by  ear  guidance  alone. 

1  Seashore,  C.  E.,  An  audiometer.  University  of  Iowa  Studies  in  Psy¬ 
chology,  1899,  II,  158-163. 

2  See  insert  p.  207. 


262 


DOROTHEA  EMELINE  WICKHAM 


The  experimenter  and  the  observer  are  seated  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  audiometer,  each  holding  a  contact  rider  in  hand, 
the  observer  being  blindfolded.  The  experimenter  starts  at  o 
and  slides  her  contact  along  the  scale  evenly  and  approximately 
at  the  rate  of  one  second  for  the  entire  swing,  thus  producing  a 
glide  from  inaudible  to  the  standard  intensity.  This  intensity 
is  sounded  three  times  at  the  rate  of  about  one  per  second,  the 
first  of  these  three  being  the  sustained  tone  at  the  end  of  the 
glide.  The  experimenter  is  then  required  to  repeat  this  sound 
by  a  similar  manipulation  of  his  contact. 

The  object  of  having  a  quick  glide  was  to  enable  the  observer 
to  find  the  desired  intensity  through  a  gradual  attack  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  intensity  attack  in  instrument  or  voice.  The 
standard  was  sounded  three  times  by  the  experimenter  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  clear  and  verified  impression  and  by  the  ob¬ 
server  for  the  purpose  of  giving  him  opportunity  to  correct 
himself  in  the  second  or  third  sounding  if  the  first  was  not  satis¬ 
factory,  as  the  third  sounding  was  the  one  recorded. 

Fifteen  preliminary  trials  were  given  followed  by  fifty  recorded 
trials.  The  audiometer  scale  is  nine  inches  long.  Movement 
over  any  considerable  part  of  it  is  therefore  so  large  that  it  is 
quite  easy  to  stop  at  the  right  intensity.  In  other  words,  the 
movement  is  not  a  smart  tap,  the  accuracy  of  which  depends  upon 
a  specific  skill,  as  in  piano  playing,  but  a  very  simple  and  large 
hand  movement  of  most  elementary  form.  The  ten  steps,  11,  12, 
15,  16,  19,  20,  25,  26,  28,  and  30,  were  arbitrarily  selected  as 
standards  representing  different  levels  of  the  thirty-five  degrees 
of  intensity,  and  each  was  sounded  five  times,  the  order  being 
determined  by  chance. 

The  principal  form  of  error  is  what  has  been  known  as  the  time 
error  combined  with  the  error  involved  in  a  premature  satisfac¬ 
tion  with  an  approaching  standard.  These  operating  together 
give  us  a  permanent  constant  error  as  shown  in  Table  III.  The 
time  error  is  to  the  effect  that,  of  two  tones  sounded  in  succes¬ 
sion,  the  latter  seems  to  be  the  louder;  and  the  approach  error, 
that,  in  approaching  a  standard  gradually,  there  is  a  tendency  to 


VOLUNTARY  CONTROL  OF  THE  INTENSITY  SOUND  263 


be  satisfied  before  the  standard  is  actually  reached.  Since  these 
are  normal  illusions,  it  makes  it  difficult  to  evaluate  them  in  the 
rating  of  achievement. 

Results. — Ninety-one  unselected  students  were  given  the  test 
as  described  above,  the  record  being  kept  in  terms  of  steps  on  the 
audiometer.  The  distribution  for  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 


The  average  error  ranged  from  .86  of  a  step  to  4.72  of  a  step 
with  the  mode  at  1.35.  For  convenience  these  were  classified  into 
five  groups,  as  shown  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II.  Rating  of  cases  as  based  on  the  average  error 


.85... 

...(  9%)... 

1. 16. . . 

...(10%)... 

1.31*  •• 

...(29%)... 

i  .6 1 . . . 

...(30%)... 

2.26. . . 

...(18%)... 

3.26. . . 

This  preliminary  norm  having  been  established,  twenty  of  the 
most  advanced  piano  pupils  in  the  music  school,  among  these, 
were  studied  for  the  purpose  of  correlating  their  rating  with 
achievement.  The  record  for  these  is  given  in  Table  III,  the 
cases  being  given  with  their  rating  as  determined  in  the  laboratory 


264 


DOROTHEA  EMETINE  WICKHAM 


before  anything  was  known  by  the  experimenter  about  their  mu¬ 
sical  achievements. 


TABLE  III.  Rank  assigned  on  the  basis  of  the  test 

Average 

Constant 

Average 

Constant 

error 

error  Rank 

error 

error 

Rank 

1.04 

—  .64  1 

1.40 

—  .04 

11 

1. 14 

—  .04  2 

1.46 

+  -34 

1 2 

1. 18 

—  -30  3 

1.78 

• 74 

13 

1. 18 

+  *56  4 

1.78 

+  -90 

14 

1.22 

—  06  5 

1.96 

—1.36 

15 

1.22 

4-  .16  6 

2-34 

1. 10 

16 

1.22 

—  .18  7 

2.72 

— 1.60 

17 

1.30 

—  .30  8 

3.12 

— 2.64 

18 

1.32 

—1.09  9 

3-38 

—326 

19 

1.36 

—  .96  10 

4.16 

—3-42 

20 

TABLE  IV.  Comparison  of  test  rank  and  ratings 

I 

II 

III 

Superior  . 

.  1,  2 

6,  11 

1,  11,  19 

Excellent 

.  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8 

1,  5,  7,  10,  14,  19 

3,  5,  6,  8,  12,  14,  i< 

High  Average  ....  9,  10,  11,  12 

2,  3,  8,  9,  15,  18 

2,  7,  9,  !<>, 

15,  18 

Low  Average  -  13,  14,  15 

4,  12,  13,  16 

4,  13,  1 7 

Poor  .... 

.  16,  17,  18 

20 

20 

Very  poor  .  19,  20  17 

I  Rating  from  results  in  the  test 
II  Rating  by  individual  instructor 
III  Rating  by  director 


Rating. — In  Table  IV  is  given  the  rating  assigned  the  same 
pupils,  first  by  the  individual  instructor  in  piano  and  second,  by 
the  director  of  the  school  of  music  upon  the  following  instruc¬ 
tions  : 


“We  have  measured  the  natural  capacity  of  the  student  for  reproducing 
certain  standards  of  loudness  in  a  tone  where  the  loudness  of  the  tone  could 
be  controlled  with  precision  and  measured. 

“In  piano  playing  this  capacity  appears  most  clearly  in  the  ‘touch’  as 
evidenced  in  the  student’s  ability  to  render  accurate  and  graceful  expression 
through  the  force  of  the  stroke,  i.e.,  the  loudness  of  the  tone.  In  order  to 
see  how  our  theoretical  finding  corresponds  with  our  observation  in  practice, 
we  are  asking  if  you  will  have  the  kindness  to  rate  the  students  listed  on 
the  scale  from  1 — 100  by  putting  a  check  mark  on  the  dotted  line  in  the  sheet 
furnished  to  indicate  the  rank  that  you  would  give  the  student  on  this  specific 
ability. 

“Take  into  account  only  this  one  factor,  excluding  pitch,  rhythm,  time, 
etc.  so  that  you  judge  on  this  one  factor  alone.  Take  training  into  account 
carefully. 

“When  you  have  rated  all  of  the  students  in  the  list,  number  them  in  the 
order  of  certainty  that  you  feel  in  your  judgment.” 


VOLUNTARY  CONTROL  OF  THE  INTENSITY  SOUND  265 


Here  we  encounter  a  most  serious  difficulty  in  the  standardizing 
of  a  test  in  that  there  is  in  music  no  definable  standard  of  in¬ 
tensity,  while  for  pitch  and  time  there  are  standards  and  achieve¬ 
ments  that  can  be  measured  accurately.  Not  only  is  there  no 
standard  of  intensity  for  measurement  or  musical  guidance,  but 
the  musician  seldom  thinks  in  terms  of  intensity  of  sound  as 
isolated,  and  therefore  finds  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  rate  a 
person  on  capacity  in  this  respect.  Furthermore,  piano  students 
have  had  different  training,  both  in  degree  and  kind,  and  it  is 
difficult  for  the  instructor  to  differentiate  between  natural  capacity 
and  the  result  of  effective  training.  “The  appeal  to  teachers’ 
judgment”  in  this  case  was  made  only  as  a  last  resort  and  with  a 
full  realization  of  the  inadequacy  of  the  method. 

The  co-efficient  of  correlation  between  the  test  and  the 

6sd2 

rating  by  the  director  is  by  the  Spearman  formula  (R=i - 

n  (n2-i 

R,  .28,  P.E.,  .11.  The  correlation  between  the  test  rank  and 
the  rank  by  the  individual  piano  instructors  is  R,  .40,  P.E.,  .11. 
These  are  low  correlations  and  would  not  be  regarded  as  satis¬ 
factory  for  a  prognostic  test  if  the  correlation  had  been  against 
a  measurable  quantity.  It  is  no  reflection  on  those  who  rated 
their  pupils  to  say  that  the  co-efficient  of  correlation  between  in¬ 
structors’  rating  and  directors’  rating  is  only  R,  .33,  P.E.,  .10. 
Table  IV  throws  into  relief  the  agreements  and  disagreements 
in  these  ratings.  The  instructors  naturally  knew  the  pupils  better 
than  the  director  who  had  only  heard  them  briefly  in  weekly 
recitals. 

In  referring  to  the  grouping  in  Table  IV,  we  observe  that 
the  test  rank  agrees  exactly  with  the  director’s  rank  in  eight  out 
of  the  twenty  cases,  is  one  point  away  in  five,  and  two  points 
away  in  five  cases.  There  remain  only  two  cases  of  extreme 
divergence.  The  test  rank  agrees  exactly  with  the  instructor  s 
rank  in  four  out  of  the  twenty  cases,  is  one  point  away  in  ten 
cases,  two  points  away  in  five  cases,  leaving  only  one  case  of 
large  disagreement.  The  director’s  rank  agrees  exactly  with 


266 


DOROTHEA  EMELINE  WICKHAM 


the  instructor’s  rank  in  eleven  out  of  the  twenty  cases,  is  one 
point  away  in  six  cases  and  two  points  away  in  three  cases. 

Comments  on  Individual  Cases 

Study  of  the  individual  cases  in  which  there  is  marked  dis¬ 
agreement  throws  much  light  on  the  reasons  for  disagreements 
in  the  three  ranks,  and  shows  how  the  correlations  were  cut  down 
by  the  presence  of  circumstances  not  under  control. 

No.  2  rated  superior  in  the  test,  but  only  high  average  by  the  instructor 
and  the  director.  It  was  found  that  she  had  very  firm  piano  touch  but 
seemed  to  be  totally  unable  to  put  expression  into  her  playing.  She  un¬ 
doubtedly  had  the  ability  to  control  the  tone  as  she  heard  it,  but  there  wa3 
apparently  no  inner  impulse  to  call  forth  the  finer  distinctions  in  shading. 
In  other  words,  her  piano  touch,  though  capable  of  being  superior,  did  not 
reveal  musical  feeling. 

No.  14,  rated  excellent  by  the  instructor  and  the  director,  made  a  low 
rating  in  the  test  on  account  of  her  attitude.  She  had  religious  scruples 
against  tests  and  approached  this  test  in  the  negative  attitude. 

No.  11,  placed  in  the  superior  group  by  both  instructor  and  director,  tested 
only  high  average.  Analysis  of  the  situation  proved  that  this  was  due  to 
nervousness  in  taking  the  test  as  she  was  nervously  high-strung,  and  the 
test  rating  was  therefore  wrong. 

No.  4,  who  rated  excellent  in  the  test,  was  a  dawdler  as  a  pupil  and  did 
not  apply  herself.  No.  18  was  just  the  opposite,  always  using  her  best 
effort  to  the  limit  of  her  capacity. 

No.  19  represents  our  worst  disagreement.  Here  the  constant  error  raises 
a  problem.  Her  average  error,  3.38  is  made  up  almost  entirely  of  the  con¬ 
stant  error  — 3.26.  In  other  words,  she  was  very  consistent,  which  is  a  form 
of  accuracy,  but  was  grossly  misled  by  the  motives  for  constant  error.  This 
raises  a  most  difficult  question  as  to  what  allowance  shall  be  given  for 
constant  error  in  the  rating. 

Conclusion. — No  far-reaching  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from 
these  preliminary  experiments,  but  much  light  is  thrown  upon 
the  nature  of  the  problem  as  guidance  for  future  work.  The 
idea  of  using  a  generic  test  in  place  of  a  specific  instrument  seems 
to  be  unquestionably  good,  particularly  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
this  test  will  have  its  greatest  significance  when  used  before  a 
musical  education  has  been  begun. 

If  we  may  assume  that  the  advanced  piano  pupils  have  gone 
through  a  process  of  selection,  the  skewness  of  the  curve  for  these 


VOLUNTARY  CONTROL  OF  THE  INTENSITY  SOUND  267 


twenty  pupils  toward  the  superior  end  as  compared  with  the 
curve  for  the  unselected  pupils  may  be  considered  evidence  of 
such  selection. 

There  is  need  of  a  developed  technique  for  the  rating  of  musical 
touch  under  laboratory  conditions  for  purposes  of  this  kind. 

Even  in  those  cases  in  which  the  test  prognosis  was  not  verified 
by  the  estimated  achievement,  valuable  light  was  thrown  upon 
the  nature  of  the  musical  mind  of  the  student  by  the  test. 

If  objective  measure  of  achievement  in  this  specific  capacity 
could  be  obtained,  the  correlation  of  the  test  with  achievement 
would  undoubtedly  be  very  much  higher  than  here  found.  The 
test,  therefore,  deserves  some  place  in  the  diagnosis  of  musical 
capacity. 


A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  AUDITORY  IMAGES 
OE  MUSICIANS,  PSYCHOLOGISTS 
AND  CHILDREN 

by 

Marie  Agnevv,  Ph.D. 

A.  Musicians 

The  following  questionnaire  was  sent  to  two  hundred  mu¬ 
sicians  belonging  to  the  Music  Teachers  National  Association:1 

“We  are  seeking  information  about  (i)  the  degree  of  tonal  imagery  pre¬ 
vailing  among  musicians;  and  (2)  the  judgment  of  musicians  as  to  the  role  of 
tonal  imagery  in  music. 

“By  auditory  imagery  (usually  called  mental  hearing)  we  mean  the  ability 
to  hear  sounds  in  imagination  and  memory  to  some  extent  as  if  they  were 
physically  present  to  the  ear. 

“For  the  purpose  of  rating  imagery,  we  use  the  following  scale : 

0 — no  image  3 — fairly  clear  image 

1 —  very  faint  image  4 — clear  image 

2 —  faint  image  5 — very  clear  image 

6 — as  clear  as  the  actual  hearing 

“If  you  will  have  the  kindness  to  try  the  two  tests  and  answer  the  follow¬ 
ing  questions,  we  shall  be  under  obligation  to  you,  and  shall  be  glad  to  send 
you  a  published  copy  of  the  report.  The  names  of  all  contributors  will  be 
kept  confidential. 

“Test  1.  Shut  your  eyes  and  try  to  hear  in  your  imagination  the  first  phrase 
of  America  as  played  on  the  piano.  After  repeated  trials,  record  your 
average  grade,  marking  on  the  above  scale. 

“Test  2.  Compose  a  phrase  of  an  original  melody,  to  be  sung  by  a 
specific  person,  and  hear  it  over  and  over  again  in  your  imagination..  Record 
the  grade  of  the  image  on  the  above  scale. 

“Questions: 

1.  Do  you  naturally  recall  music  vividly  in  realistic  auditory  imagery? 

1  The  selection  was  made  by  taking  the  first  two  hundred  in  the  alpha¬ 
betical  list  of  members  for  that  year.  These  members  vary  in  degree  of 
musicianship;  admission  to  the  association  is  elastic.  It  would  have  been 
interesting  to  see  the  names  after  the  following  quotations;  but,  after  all, 
we  are  not  concerned  with  “authority”  in  a  field  yet  so  unanalyzed  and 
uncontrolled. 


A  COMPARISON  OF  AUDITORY  IMAGES  OF  MUSICIANS  2S9 

2.  Do  your  compositions  always  come  naturally  to  you  in  realistic  audit- 
ory  imagery? 

3.  Has  your  own  auditory  imagery  developed  or  tended  to  regress  as 
you  have  matured? 

5-  What  significance  do  you  attach  to  such  differences,  if  any?” 

The  tests  in  the  questionnaire  are  subject  to  the  same  sources 
of  error  which  occur  in  the  test  for  measuring  auditory  imagery. 
Some  of  the  errors  are  exaggerated  here;  it  is  impossible  to  give 
the  corrective  charge;  there  can  be  no  opportunity  whatever  for 
preliminary  drill ;  the  explanation  cannot  be  full ;  there  is  danger 
of  confusing  the  attribute  of  vividness  with  other  attributes; 
there  is  danger  also  of  confusing  the  auditory  imagery  with 
visual  or  kinaesthetic  imagery,  or  of  linking  them  inextricably 
together;  further,  there  is  the  possibility  that  the  observer  may 
answer  the  questionnaire  too  rapidly  to  give  it  sufficient  thought. 
The  form  of  the  questions  would  tempt  one  to  hasty  generaliza¬ 
tions. 


The  curve  of  distribution  for  the  76  musicians  who  replied 
is  shown  in  the  solid  line,  Fig.  1.  More  than  half  of  the  musicians 
graded  themselves  6  in  the  first  test,  and  nearly  half  graded 


Fig.  1.  Distribution  of  Ratings  in  Tonal  Auditory  Imagery.  Solid  line, 
unselected  adults  and  children;  dot-dash  line,  musicians;  dash  line,  psy¬ 
chologists.  Figures  at  the  left,  per  cent  of  cases;  at  the  bottom,  vividness  of 
the  image. 


270 


MARIE  AGNEIV 


themselves  6  in  the  second  test.  Only  a  very  small  percentage 
graded  themselves  below  five.  Some  of  the  comments  follow : 

“For  both  tests,  I  cannot  conceive  of  less  than  100%  for  any  composing 
musician.” 

"The  image  is  as  vivid  as  perception,  but  different.  The  pleasure  of  the 
physical  shock  of  the  vibrations  is  lacking.” 

“In  these  grades  I  have  assumed  that  your  grade  6  was  impossible,  as  it  is 
inconceivable  that  the  presence  of  an  external  stimulus  should  not  intensify 
the  image.” 

“Melody,  5;  piano  tone  color,  2;  awkward  to  hear  without  image  of  the 
words.” 

“Melody  and  harmony  are  both  imaged  mentally.” 

“I  hear  America  chorally — piano  as  accompaniment  in  harmony  only. 
Hear  the  soprano  in  fourth  phrase  very  distinctly.” 

“Just  how  to  grade  my  own  degree  of  auditory  proficiency  I  hesitate  to 
state.  As  regards  ‘America,’  ear,  eye,  hand,  and  key-board  are  so  clearly 
associated  mentally  that  the  auditory  image  cannot  stand  alone,  although  of 
course  that  was  the  first  in  conception.” 

“I  can  hear  America  best  by  hand,  but  find  no  difficulty  in  making  myself 
hear  it  on  the  piano.” 

“I  find  the  melody  perfectly  distinct,  the  bass  not  so  much  so,  and  the 
alto  and  tenor  lose  more  or  less  in  a  change  of  chord  rather  than  in  distinct 
imagery  as  to  their  movement.  I  should  rate  myself  if  I  understand  your 
scale  as  between  two  and  three.” 

“I  can  hear  in  my  imagination  America  as  played  by  a  piano  or  by  any 
one  or  combination  of  orchestral  instruments,  or  by  any  voice  with  which 
1  am  acquainted.  I  should  not  consider  that  a  man  had  any  real  musical 
gift  unless  he  should  do  this.” 

In  the  composing  of  the  melody  in  Test  2,  some  of  the  com¬ 
posers  found  that  the  grade  varied  with  the  voice  for  which 
the  melodies  were  intended. 

“4  to  6,  depending  on  singer  in  mind.  I  tried  it  with  four  singers  equally 
well  known.” 

“Although  I  am  able  to  image  the  melody  up  to  a  rating  of  5,  I  find  myself 
much  less  clear  in  the  endeavor  to  conceive  of  it  in  the  voice  of  this  special 
person.” 

“5  for  my  own  voice;  4  for  soprano,  bass,  etc.,  timbre  generally;  2-3  if 
I  imagine  it  sung  for  instance  by  Caruso  or  other  specific  person  whose  voice 
I  remember  or  thought  I  remember.” 

“During  one  year  I  wrote  twenty-five  songs  for  a  certain  baritone  and 
when  writing  I  always  heard  his  voice  distinctly.” 

In  answering  the  first  question,  “Do  you  naturally  recall 
music  vividly  in  realistic  auditory  imagery?" — the  musicians 


A  COMPARISON  OF  AUDITORY  IMAGES  OF  MUSICIANS  271 


replied  almost  unanimously  in  the  affirmative.  There  were  only 
three  doubtful  replies.  Some  musicians  recall  all  music  vividly, 
others  only  familiar  music.  A  few  note  the  dependence  of  the 
auditory  image  in  recall  upon  such  factors  as  rhythm,  volume, 
timbre,  or  phrasing. 

The  second  question  was :  “Do  your  compositions  always 
come  naturally  to  you  in  realistic  auditory  imagery?'’  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  how  many  of 
these  musicians  compose,  although  we  do  know  that  a  few  of 
them  are  well-known  composers.  A  large  number  did  not  reply 
to  this  question.  Thirty-one  answered  yes;  1  answered  no;  6  re¬ 
plied  “not  always.”  Of  these  6,  3  noted  the  use  of  an  instrument 
in  composing.  There  were  two  exceptions  to  the  answer  yes. 
The  first  was,  “except  intricate  passages;”  the  second,  “occa¬ 
sionally  a  phrase  end  is  vapory.”  Five  musicians  replied  that 
themes  come  to  them  in  auditory  imagery,  but  details  of  struc¬ 
ture  and  harmony  do  not;  two  could  not  image  their  compositions 
completely. 

Other  replies  were  as  follows : 

“In  the  composition  of  a  melody  when  this  is  finished,  it  is  almost  as  clear 
as  when  it  is  played,  but  anything  to  be  played  I  usually  work  out  and  change 
around  a  great  deal.” 

“I  am  not  a  composer,  but  am  in  the  habit  of  extemporising.  I  know 
(grade  4)  mentally  beforehand  what  I  am  going  to  play,  because  I  think 
melodically  and  harmonically.” 

“Very  naturally.  Melodies  once  started  in  my  imagination  flow  along 
much  faster  than  I  can  record  them.  Harmonies  equally  so.” 

“Prof.  F  is  a  composer  of  considerable  ability.  .  .  .  He  tells  me  that 

he  always  composes  in  auditory  terms  and  without  the  use  of  a  piano,  even 
where  he  is  composing  music  for  an  orchestra.  If  there  is  anything  unusual 
at  any  point  in  his  composition  he  reports  that  he  will  pause  to  visualize  the 
notes  as  they  would  appear  when  written.  But  both  the  visualization  of  the 
notes  and  the  actual  playing  of  the  piece  once  composed  he  considers  to  be 
translations  from  the  original  auditory  images  in  terms  of  which  his  produc¬ 
tions  are  composed.  He  feels  quite  certain  that  both  in  imagining  a  certain 
musical  phrase  and  in  composing  one  originally  his  imagery  is  fully  as  clear 
as  in  actual  hearing.” 

“When  twenty-five  years  of  age  I  was  operated  on  and  remained  two  weeks 
in  the  hospital.  During  that  time  I  conceived  and  completed  an  orchestral 
composition,  even  to  every  detail  of  scoring,  including  bowings,  etc.,  which 


272 


MARIE  AG  NEW 


I  wrote  without  difficulty  and  without  recourse  to  an  instrument  as  soon  as 
I  could  sit  up.  My  first  hearing  of  even  a  tone  of  this  work  was  at  a  sub¬ 
sequent  orchestral  rehearsal  previous  to  a  performance.  The  success  of 
this  composition  was  in  a  large  degree  responsible  for  certain  material  ad¬ 
vancements  which  came  shortly  afterward.” 

Of  the  musicians  who  replied  to  question  No.  3,  59  said  that 
their  imagery  had  developed.  Some  of  these  gave  as  reason  for 
its  development  their  constant  practice  or  training  in  music.  The 
imagery  of  four  had  remained  stationary.  One  replied,  “I  find 
it  as  strong  now  as  it  was  twenty  years  ago.”  Another  said, 
‘'The  tendency  is  to  regress  unless  constantly  exercised.”  Some 
attributed  the  apparent  development  in  imagery  to  better  knowl¬ 
edge  of  how  to  use  it,  or  better  mental  organization,  or  wider 
scope. 

In  regard  to  differences  in  the  imagery  of  pupils,  there  was 
almost  unanimous  assent  that  the  difference  was  great.  There 
were  two,  however,  who  replied  that,  though  there  was  a  dif¬ 
ference  in  pupils  in  this  respect,  it  was  not  a  great  one. 

Question  No.  5  is  closely  connected  with  question  No.  4. 
There  was  a  large  variety  of  answers  depending  on  the  way  in 
which  the  musicians  understood  the  question.  Some  referred 
the  differences  to  the  basis  of  auditory  imagery;  others  to  its 
connection  with  other  phases  of  musical  ability,  and  others  to 
its  importance  in  musical  talent  and  education.  Eight  musi¬ 
cians  based  good  auditory  imagery  or  the  lack  of  it  on  early 
training;  nine  on  innate  musical  endowment;  fourteen  on  both 
inherited  ability  and  training.  Only  one  replied  that  the  dif¬ 
ference  was  of  no  importance.  One  based  the  difference  on 
general  intelligence.  He  says:  “Given  two  people  of  equal 
musical  ability,  the  one  who  is  the  more  intellectual  will  have 
the  keener  sense  of  auditory  imagery.” 

The  following  answers  show  further  the  various  opinions  of 
musicians  in  regard  to  the  significance  of  the  auditory  image. 

“The  indication  of  more  or  less  dullness  of  tonal  sense  affecting  this  keen¬ 
ness  of  perception  of  values  of  various  kinds.” 

“Without  considerable  such  ability,  I  feel  that  the  student  must  fall  short 
of  any  really  musical  attainment.” 


A  COMPARISON  OF  AUDITORY  IMAGES  OF  MUSICIANS  273 


“Greatest  significance.  Individual  conceptions  of  music  depend  entirely 
on  ability  to  think  music.” 

“Vivid  auditory  imagery  would  seem  to  mark  the  musically  sensitive.” 

“The  difference  shows  the  degree  of  true  musicianship.” 

“I  believe  a  clear  auditory  imagery  is  the  real  basis  of  musicianship.” 

“I  consider  distinct  and  definite  auditory  imagery  very  important.  I  strive 
to  develop  it  in  my  pupils.  With  its  development  comes  greater  technical 
accuracy  and  better  interpretation.” 

“Auditory  imagery  is  a  necessary  factor  in  the  higher  appreciation  of 
musical  effect.” 

“The  quality  of  the  musician  and  the  soundness  of  his  aesthetic  judgment 
depend,  it  seems  to  me,  in  large  measure  on  his  subjective  audition.” 

“Significance  attached  to  such  differences  depends  upon  whether  the  student 
has  talent  (a  supposed  talent)  for  composition  or  whether  he  is  merely  an 
interpreter.  In  the  latter  case,  mostly  lack  of  training  (if  deficient  in  it) 
and  can  easily  be  developed.  In  the  former,  it  makes  for  sureness  of  touch, 
sureness  in  transcription  of  ideas.  Sometimes  coupled  with  unoriginality.” 

“The  more  musical  pupils  have  the  clearer  image.” 

“I  aim  at  the  auditory  image  from  the  start.  Those  having  clearest  im¬ 
agery  perform  most  artistically  and  only  as  they  gain  this  ability,  is  music  of 
real  cultural  value.” 

“Those  who  are  strong  on  imagery  memorize  easily.” 

“(1)  Some  students  are  more  awake  to  musical  impressions  than  others. 
(2)  Students  differ  in  self-consciousness  and  the  less  self-conscious  they 
are,  the  freer  they  are  to  hear  the  music  mentally.  (3)  Often,  lack  of 
fundamental  training  clouds  the  clear  musical  perception,  but  it  can  even 
then  be  brought  out,  under  right  conditions.” 

“The  average  student  who  is  in  a  grade  above  the  first  seems  to  have 
imagery  which  I  should  rate  3  or  4  when  dealing  with  music  previously 
practiced.  But  the  same  pupils,  when  they  are  asked  to  write  harmony  exer¬ 
cises  in  class,  away  from  the  piano,  frequently  show  inability  to  hear  a  melody 
alone,  to  say  nothing  of  harmonic  progressions.  To  me  this  seems  to  be  a 
deficiency  in  both  the  imagination  and  memory.  None  of  them  ever  write 
tonal  combinations  they  have  not  repeatedly  heard,  so  I  should  count  them 
deficient  in  both  respects.” 

“Those  who  have  it  not  should  desert  music  at  once. 

“The  matter  of  tonal  imagery  is  a  vital  one  in  musical  training  and  educa¬ 
tion.  Together  with  the  ability  to  hear  tones  and  sense  rhythms  through 
the  eye  while  looking  at  symbols,  this  power  of  mental  hearing  is  fundamental 
and  absolutely  vital  in  music  education,  not  only  for  the  singer,  the  player, 
and  the  composer,  but  for  the  intelligent  listener  as  well.” 

“I  have  laid  stress  with  my  pupils  upon  developing  auditory  imagery  and 
urge  them  to  study  new  pieces  away  from  the  piano  at  first.” 

“This  habit  of  hearing  mentally  I  do  not  consider  as  being  anything  re- 


274 


MARIE  AG  NEW 


markable  and  I  believe  any  one  of  ordinary  intelligence  can  learn  to  do  it 
if  he  is  properly  taught.  I  am  constantly  training  students  to  analyze  musical 
compositions  through  the  ear,  also  to  write  what  they  hear.  This  is  merely 
learning  to  think  in  the  language  of  music,  and  as  the  musical  gift  is  as 
widely  distributed  as  any  other,  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  out  of  a  hundred 
people  selected  at  random  as  many  could  be  made  into  successful  musicians 
as  into  mathematicians  or  linguists.” 

“I  consider  the  development  of  this  faculty  a  highly  important  function 
of  musical  education  which  has  been  woefully  neglected  thus  far.  True,  our 
present  form  of  education  and  the  hearing  of  good  music  train  this  faculty 
as  a  sort  of  by-product,  often  considered  as  an  undesirable  acquisition  in 
the  matter-of-fact  world.  But  it  is  of  inestimable  value  both  to  the  com¬ 
poser  and  interpreter,  especially  of  the  larger  forms.  And  to  the  non-pro¬ 
fessional  musician,  it  is  a  constant  source  of  enjoyment  and  inspiration. 

“You  have  found  probably  the  weakest  spot  in  present-day  musical  train¬ 
ing.  I  think  nearly  all  children  possess  the  faculty  in  rudimentary  form, 
with  great  possibilities  of  development;  but  the  training  should  begin  early, 
and  continue  throughout  the  entire  course.  The  results  would  be  manifold : 
(i)  More  composers  and  better  (it  would  not  create  geniuses,  but  help  even 
them);  (2)  Better  interpreters;  (3)  More  intelligent  listeners,  whose  en¬ 
joyment  of  music  would  not  only  be  heightened,  but  prolonged.” 

B .  Psych  0 1 0 gists 

In  order  to  institute  a  rough  comparison  of  the  artistic  with 
the  scientific  mind  in  this  respect,  the  same  questionnaires  were 
sent  to  two  hundred  members  of  the  American  Psychological 
Association,  with  the  request  that  they  try  the  tests  and  record 
their  grades.  Test  2,  for  composition,  was  omitted.  The  dotted 
line  in  Fig.  1  gives  the  curve  of  distribution  for  the  ninety  who 
replied.  A  relatively  large  proportion  graded  themselves  o.  Ac¬ 
companying  introspective  notes  usually  give  as  a  reason  for  the 
low  grade  in  auditory  imagery  the  prominence  of  kinaesthesis. 
Some  comments  of  those  who  grade  themselves  o  are  as  follows : 

“I  am  predominantly  of  the  motor  type.  If  kinaesthesis  is  inhibited,  I 
totally  lack  auditory  imagery  (whence  my  report  of  0)  ;  if  it  is  not  inhibited 
I  have  first  auditory-verbal-motor  images  of  the  words  of  America,  estimated 
as  ‘2’  on  your  scale.  Do  not  under  any  conditions  get  an  auditory  image  of 
the  tune.  That  is  entirely  carried  in  kinaesthesis.” 

“I  get  considerable  satisfaction  from  rehearsing  America,  for  1  can  feel 
the  rhythm  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  air,  and  yet  I  doubt  if  I  hear  the 
imaginary  music  at  all  when  I  don’t  hum  or  keep  time  with  my  breathing 
or  other  muscular  movements.  When  I  let  myself  go,  even  without  hum¬ 
ming,  I  find  it  exciting,  but  I  doubt  if  I  hear  it  at  all.” 


A  COMPARISON  OF  AUDITORY  IMAGES  OF  MUSICIANS  275 


“Personally  my  most  vigorous  efforts  with  the  most  familiar  songs  give 
me  the  very  faintest  image  of  the  sound,  which  I  refer  to  muscular  effort 
to  repeat  the  sound.” 

“I  showed  your  paper  to  a  well-known  pianist  here  and  he  made  the  com¬ 
ment  that  in  his  own  case  the  mental  image  was  clearer  and  more  satisfactory 
in  some  instances  than  the  direct  sensation,  so  that  he  thought  there  was  one 
degree  beyond  your  maximum  which  had  to  be  taken  into  consideration.” 

“My  musical  imagery  is  vocal.  I  do  not  have  auditory  imagery  at  all.” 

“Even  after  I  have  heard  a  selection  scores  of  times,  I  seldom  recognize  it. 
When  I  do  recognize  it,  the  reason  is  that  I  get  the  rhythm,  not  the  sounds. 
Many  of  the  sounds  might  be  changed  and  if  the  rhythm  were  kept  constant 
I  would  not  realize  any  difference.” 

“I  have  no  voluntary  control  over  my  auditory  imagery.  Ordinarily  they 
rank  in  vividness  about  2.  Occasionally  a  melody  perseveres  for  a  long  time 
at  a  clearness  of  3  to  4.  I  do  play  the  piano,  but  had  also  several  years 
training  in  violin  and  pipe-organ,  besides  considerable  voice-training.  But 
am  a  very  poor  singer.  Have  composed  several  pieces  (none  published). 
Had  instruction  in  musical  theory,  composition  and  orchestration.  Neverthe¬ 
less,  I  have  never  learned  to  depend  upon  my  auditory  imagery,  presumably 
it  was  never  pointed  out  to  me.  When  playing  from  memory  I  depend 
exclusively  upon  kinaesthetic  process.” 

“Clear  image  of  phrase  as  sung  by  self — can  get  no  other.” 

“I  have  no  musical  ability.  I  am  unable  to  carry  a  tune  although  I  do 
not  sing  in  monotone.  I  am  told,  however,  that  I  am  usually  out  of  tune 
when  singing  with  a  congregation.  It  seems  that  I  am  particularly  deficient 
in  auditory  imagery.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  I  am  extremely  fond  of  both 
concert  and  vocal  music  and  thoroughly  enjoy  grand  opera  and  recitals. 
However,  I  have  never  had  any  melody  or  tune  run  through  my  head.  I 
dream  frequently  but  never  so  far  as  I  can  remember  have  I  ever  heard 
a  voice  in  my  dreams.” 

“I  never  have  anything  but  the  faintest  auditory  imagery.  Kinaesthetic 
sensations  of  tensions  in  ear  or  larynx  seem  to  take  their  place  with  me.” 

“I  can  get  a  clear  image  of  the  tone  of  any  instrument  or  voice,  only 
when  I  aid  my  imagination  by  actual  movements  of  the  vocal  chords.” 

“I  occasionally  have  pure  auditory  images,  especially  hypnagogically ;  but 
even  these  are  rare.  They  are  also  fairly  clear  during  perseveration,  but 
this  I  have  not  treated  for  your  purpose.  I  cannot  now,  in  making  these 
tests,  secure  your  auditory  images  without  kinaesthetic  support.” 

“I  had  a  very  clear  and  distinct  vocal  motor  auditory  image  of  my  own 
voice  singing  America,  but  I  could  not  get  an  auditory  image  of  this  air  as 
played  on  a  piano.  I  made  several  efforts,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to 
visualize  a  person — twice  a  woman  and  once  a  man — sitting  at  a  piano,  but 
I  could  not  get  the  faintest  image  of  a  piano  note.” 

Two  psychologists  who  grade  themselves  1  write  as  follows: 


2?6 


MARIE  AGNEW 


'‘Mine  are  almost  wholly  muscle-memories,  lodged  seemingly  in  the  throat, 
mixed  with  visual  memory  of  the  musical  scale,  a  crowd  singing,  etc.” 

“I  feel  sure  that  I  have  very  faint  auditory  imagery,  if,  indeed,  I  have  any 
at  all.  I  find  myself  trying  to  respond  to  your  experiments  emphasizing  al¬ 
ways  certain  motor  processes  rather  than  the  auditory  results.  Whenever  I 
think  of  a  melody  which  I  know  I  began  to  think  of  this  melody  in  terms  of 
the  way  in  which  I  should  produce  it  rather  than  the  way  in  which  I  hear  it. 
Such  auditory  imagery  as  I  can  trump  up  seems  to  be  very  transient.  It 
comes  in  spots  and  then  disappears.  It  cannot  be  sustained  for  any  length  of 
time  and  hence  my  skepticism  about  its  existence  at  all.” 

There  are  also  a  number  of  other  introspective  notes  which 
analyze  the  auditory  complex: 

“Never  quite  certain  that  the  clearness  of  the  auditory  image  is  not  in 
part  due  to  voco-motor  re-enforcement.” 

“I  have  given  myself  a  grade  of  I  in  your  first  test,  because  I  get  a  fairly 
clear  auditory  image  of  the  opening  chord  of  America  as  played  on  the  piano, 
but  cannot  get  any  of  the  succeeding  notes  without  hearing  also  a  fairly 
clear  chorus  of  voices  singing  and  having  the  piano  drop  to  a  rather  droning 
accompaniment.  Images  in  both  tests  are  accompanied  by  visual  images 
(grade  6)  and  distinct  kinaesthesis.  You  may  also  want  to  know  that  I 
cannot  “carry  a  tune”  unless  I  can  “follow  along”  with  some  one  else.  If 
I  try  to  sing  alone,  I  generally  know  when  I  am  “off,”  but  often  cannot  say 
whether  I  flat  or  sharp.” 

“In  both  cases  the  tune  was  a  perfectly  definite  fact.  It  could  not  possibly 
be  confounded  with  any  other  tune  or  with  anything  else  in  the  world.  Yet 
the  sensory  factors  seemed  very  elusive.” 

“I  cannot  eliminate  the  voice  accompaniment.  In  both  tests,  a  great  deal 
of  organic  and  kinaesthetic  material  present  which  I  am  afraid  gives  me 
the  auditory  attitude  and  meaning  without  true  auditory  “content”  of  the 
type  asked  for.” 

“I  find  motor  images  from  tongue  (and  possibly  vocal  organs)  for  the 
minor  rhythm  and  from  the  head  or  some  larger  body  mass  for  fundamental 
rhythm.  Without  these  images  are  much  less  vivid.” 

“Extending  the  experiment,  I  find  the  imagery  clearer  for  specific  voices 
than  for  specific  instruments.” 

“I  am  passionately  fond  of  music  and  have  played  a  pianola  for  several 
years.  In  this  way  I  have  trained  my  ear  so  that  I  can  carry  melodies  or 
motives  from  Beethoven  or  Chopin  in  my  memory.  This  perhaps  has  some¬ 
thing  to  do  with  my  relatively  prominent  auditory  imagery.”  (Grades  5  and  4) 

“My  grade  of  1  is  due  to  the  fact  that  I  never  listen  to  the  piano  accom¬ 
paniment  of  America,  and  I  never  have  heard  the  piano  alone  with  that 
melody.  Had  you  asked  for  voice  or  voices  the  grade  would  be  5.” 

“The  auditory  image  is  very  clear  and  focal.  The  timbre  of  the  imaged 
tones,  however,  is  rather  indistinct  and  undifferentiated  (i.e.,  I  should  not 


A  COMPARISON  OF  AUDITORY  IMAGES  OF  MUSICIANS  277 


recognize  immediately  as  of  the  piano  quality).  Besides  the  auditory  image, 
there  is  present  also  fairly  clear  (3)  vocal-motor  imagery  of  slight  tension 
in  the  throat  muscles  and  very  clear  (5)  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  lip  and 
tongue  movement  (somewhat  as  though  whistling).  In  my  customary 
imagery  of  musical  phrases  this  kinaesthetic  imagery  almost  invariably 
amounts  to  slight  actual  innervation.” 

‘It  seems  to  me  that  the  imagery  which  arises  when  making  the  test  is 
not  a  single  thing  or  even  a  compound  of  fusible  parts,  but  rather  consists 
of  distinct  parts  of  varying  degrees  of  clearness.  For  instance,  the  rhythm, 
that  is,  the  rate  and  duration,  of  the  different  tones  is  very  clear ;  but  the 
tonal  quality  is  very  faint  indeed  if  it  exists  at  all.  The  tones  seem  to  be 
represented  by  a  sort  of  kinaesthetic  image.  The  higher  tones  by  a  sort 
of  tensing  of  muscles  of  neck  and  cheeks.  If  it  is  inhibited  here,  it  seems 
to  break  out  in  some  form  of  gesture  imagery.” 

“In  test  1  motor  imagery  of  the  words  as  sung  by  myself  and  auditory 
imagery  of  the  words  sung  by  myself  interfered.  I  could  hear  the  piano 
faintly  but  the  other  images  predominated.”  (Grades  2  and  4) 

“Auditory  imagery  attended  by  kinaesthetic  processes  (throat  and  hand) 
and  very  clear  visual  imagery.  Auditory  imagery  of  other  melodies  (sound 
or  piano)  is  clearer.  I  last  heard  America  from  the  phonograph.” 

“I  do  not  know  any  music.  I  have  never  memorised  tunes.  I  have 
clear  images  of  sound.  I  can  hear  a  whistle  or  organ  or  orchestra  in  im¬ 
agination  quite  clearly.” 

“Found  test  2  to  involve  (a)  visual  imagery;  (b)  auditory  imagery;  (c) 
invention;  (d)  memorization  and  in  my  case  predominantly  motor  and 
kinaesthetic  imagery.  All  this  complexity  gave  an  almost  negligible  auditory 
imagery,  viewed  alone.” 

“Test  1.  I  am  very  certain  that  I  did  not  hear  in  my  imagination  the 
whole  phrase  from  beginning  to  end.  I  seem  to  be  able  to  catch  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  it,  say  three  or  four  notes ;  the  remainder  of  the  phrase  I  was 
totally  unable  to  identify  even  when  the  greatest  effort  to  do  so  prevails. 
In  fact  I  find  it  necessary  to  visualize  the  piano  and  some  one  at  it  in  order 
to  get  the  first  part  of  the  phrase  in  tonal  images. 

“Test  2.  The  high  grade  3  here  I  think  is  due  to  the  fact  that  I  put  the 
phrase  of  my  invention  into  the  mouth  of  my  mother,  who  used  to  sing  a 
great  deal  and  who  still  sings  some.  It  must  be  of  interest  to  you  to  know 
that  when  I  put  the  same  phrase  into  the  mouth  of  any  one  of  half  a  dozen 
persons  I  am  scarcely  able  to  get  any  imagery.” 

“My  auditory  imagery  is  very  clear,  and  I  habitually  have  musical  images 
that  are  almost  as  clear  as  actual  hearing.  But  these  images  are  not  subject 
to  voluntary  control,  and  my  reaction  on  the  tests  is  therefore  unsatisfactory. 

“Although  I  have  no  technical  ability,  I  am  more  deeply  moved  by  music 
than  are  some  professional  musicians  of  my  acquaintance. 

“Imagined  music  is  a  very  important  factor  in  my  daily  life.  Musical 
images  are  almost  present  in  consciousness.  I  can  banish  them  only  by 
straining  my  attention  on  something  else,  and  then  only  for  a  moment.  It 
is  very  difficult  to  effect  a  substitution  of  a  desirable  melody  for  an  un- 


278 


MARIE  AGNEW 


desirable  one.  I  may  be  annoyed  for  many  days  by  a  rhythmical  air  that 
I  have  heard  on  the  street.  At  other  times  I  hear  in  imagination  the  sym¬ 
phonies  of  which  one  never  tires.  The  harmony  is  present  in  all  its  richness, 
and  I  can  hear  distinctly  each  instrument  of  the  orchestra. 

“Drowsiness  is  conductive  to  heightened  activity  of  my  musical  imagina¬ 
tion.  I  may  waken  in  the  night  with  a  clear  image  of  a  melody  which  I 
have  heard  but  once,  possibly  years  ago.  I  go  over  it  repeatedly,  trying  to 
hold  it  until  I  can  identify  it  but  it  is  usually  gone  before  I  am  sufficiently 
wide  awake  to  write  down  any  part  of  it.” 

The  lower  grades  of  the  psychologists  represent  not  only 
differences  in  imagery,  but  also  differences  in  methods  of  eval¬ 
uating  it.  The  psychologists  analyze  their  mental  content  critic¬ 
ally,  and  find  other  factors  in  connection  with  their  auditory 
images. 

It  is  probable  that  practice  in  introspection  always  reduces  the 
imagery  grade  somewhat.  The  writer  finds  that  her  own  aver¬ 
age  grade  dropped  with  extensive  practice  from  5  to  3.  Intro¬ 
spective  notes  show,  however,  this  is  not  the  sole  element,  but 
that  actual  differences  exist  in  imagery  not  only  between  the 
musicians  and  psychologists,  but  among  the  psychologists  them¬ 
selves. 

C.  Children  ( unselected ) 

Test  1  was  given  to  1,444  grammar  school  children,  unselected 
and  almost  evenly  distributed  in  the  four  grades.  The  distribu¬ 
tion  for  these  is  shown  in  the  dark  curve,  Fig.  1.  The  same  test 
given  to  university  sophomore  girls  yields  a  distribution  for 
these  adults  which  is  practically  identical  with  the  distribution 
for  grammar  school  children. 

Taking  the  curve  for  unselected  children  and  adults  as  a  basis 
for  comparison,  we  see  in  the  other  two  curves  an  unmistakable 
divergence  of  the  musical  and  the  scientific  minds  from  this. 
Is  this  divergence  a  ground  for  the  selection  of  occupation,  or 
is  it  the  result  of  occupation? 

The  crudeness  of  this  method  of  investigation  is  frankly  ad¬ 
mitted.  Yet  it  is  introspective  facts  that  we  seek.  They  were 
gathered  without  prejudice.  The  testimony  here  gathered  is 
rich  in  suggestiveness,  and  should  lead  to  controlled  investigation 
of  the  numerous  problems  raised. 


THE  AUDITORY  IMAGERY  OF  GREAT  COMPOSERS 

By 

Marie  Agnew,  Ph.D. 

In  order  to  study  the  imagery  of  composers,  a  number  of 
letters  and  autobiographies  of  great  composers  were  examined. 
The  purpose  was  to  find  the  type  and  characteristic  features  of 
their  imagery,  to  determine  whether  the  imagery  was  a  neces¬ 
sary  part  of  their  musical  genius,  and  whether  they  used  it  in 
composition.  The  original  intention  was  to  make  a  statistical 
collection,  taking  ten  composers,  and  giving  their  statements 
in  regard  to  their  imagery,  accepting  as  evidence  only  those 
quotations  which  showed  unmistakably  the  presence  of  imagery. 
However,  this  was  found  to  be  impracticable.  It  was  difficult 
to  get  complete  accounts  of  a  composer’s  musical  experiences 
and  his  method.  Often  there  was  no  material.  Again,  material 
which  would  have  been  serviceable  had  been  inadvertently  des¬ 
troyed,  as  was  Schubert's  diary.  Even  available  material  was 
often  unsatisfactory.  Some  of  the  composers  were  not  intro¬ 
spective,  and  recorded  their  composing  in  a  matter-of-fact  way, 
or  gave  any  scattered  references  to  their  musical  imagery.  They 
did  not  have  the  psychological  concept  of  the  image.  In  fact, 
some  of  them  had  not  the  opportunity,  as  they  lived  before  the 
psychology  of  the  image  developed.  The  result  was  that  they 
recorded  musical  experiences  in  a  naive  way. 

To  show  a  characteristic  role  of  imagery,  extracts  may  be 
made  from  five  musicians, — Schumann,  Mozart,  Berlioz,  Tsch- 
aikowsky,  and  Wagner.  These  were  selected  because  they  were 
the  most  outspoken,  and  have  expressed  clearly  the  character 
and  function  of  their  auditory  imagery. 

Schumann 

Schumann’s  imagery  was  remarkably  realistic  in  character. 
It  was  so  vivid  that  he  retained  tones  in  almost  their  original 


2&) 


MARIE  AGNEW 


clearness  long  after  he  had  first  heard  them.  His  imagery  was 
not  only  vivid,  but  accurate  and  profuse.  When  listening  to 
piano  music,  he  could  fill  it  in  with  the  tones  of  other  instru¬ 
ments,  hearing  it  as  though  played  by  an  orchestra. 

His  auditory  imagery  was  the  most  important  factor  in  his 
musical  genius.  He  composed  through  his  “inner  hearing."'  He 
advised  other  composers  to  eschew  the  use  of  an  instrument  and 
to  compose  with  the  aid  of  their  mental  images  alone.  In  inter¬ 
preting,  he  imagined  the  effect  he  thought  the  composer  wished 
to  produce.  He  urged  conductors  to  hear  their  music  in  im¬ 
agination  the  first  time  from  looking  at  the  written  score  of  the 
separate  parts.  He  himself  criticised  music  he  had  never  heard 
by  playing  it  in  imagination  from  the  score. 

Although  Schumann’s  imagination  was  predominantly  au¬ 
ditory,  he  also  had  vivid  visual  imagery.  Often  he  composed 
with  the  aid  of  “pictures,”  developing  them  simultaneously  with 
his  musical  thought.  Music  aroused  both  visual  and  auditory 
images  for  him,  although  at  times  the  music  served  for  the  sound 
itself  and  only  the  associated  visual  images  were  prominent.  His 
visual  images  helped  to  give  him  full  settings  for  his  music,  and 
stimulated  his  auditory  imagery  as  to  completeness  and  pro¬ 
fusion. 

Schumann  would  often  get  totally  different  imaginative  effects 
from  the  same  piece  of  music.  One  element  of  charm  in  his 
essays  is  his  expression  of  the  distinctly  different  appeal  of 
music  to  the  three  phases  of  his  personality,  which  he  makes 
entirely  different,  and  constantly  speaks  of  as  actual  “members 
of  the  Davidite  society.” 

The  following  quotations  show  the  character  of  Schumann’s 
imagery  and  his  use  of  it: 

"For  two  long  hours  this  motif  rang  in  my  ears.”  (u,  p.  239) 

“He  who  has  once  heard  Henselt  can  never  forget  his  playing;  these 
pieces  still  haunt  my  memory  like  the  recollection  of  a  parterre  of  flowers.” 
(n,  p.  236) 

“Our  judgment  concerning  them  must  not  be  considered  exhaustive,  as 
we  have  only  heard  one  of  them  performed ;  for  though  the  inner  musical 
hearing  is  the  finer  one,  the  spirit  of  realization  has  its  rights;  the  clear, 
living  tone  has  its  peculiar  effects.”  (11,  p.  1 77) 


THE  AUDITORY  IMAGERY  OF  GREAT  COMPOSERS  281 


“We  are  not  able  to  say  more,  regarding  a  trio  by  C.  Seyler,  save  what 
a  silent  performance,  with  the  parts  laid  around  us,  will  allow.  It  seems, 
however,  clear  enough  to  dispense  with  a  score,  and  does  not  apparently  rise 
beyond  that  mediocre  flight  of  thought  which  may  always  be  guessed  at  a 
few  minutes  beforehand ;  in  the  pauses  of  the  pianoforte  part  I  am  nearly 
always  able  to  imagine  the  filling  out  of  the  other  instruments.”  (11,  p. 
179-180) 

“I  have  sung  the  work  over  as  finely  as  possible  in  imagination.”  (11, 
p.  450. 

“If,  in  the  very  first  measure  I  can  detect  the  kettle-drum,  the  answering 
tutti  in  the  second,  and  later  on,  a  violin  unison,  the  character  of  the  in¬ 
strument  for  which  it  was  written  is  not  thereby  injured,  but  our  enjoyment 
of  it  is  rather  heightened.”  (11,  p.  451) 

“I  turned  over  the  leaves  vacantly  ;  the  veiled  enjoyment  of  music  which 
one  does  not  hear,  has  something  magical  in  it.”  (10,  p.  4) 

“They  will  be  understood  by  those  who  can  rejoice  in  music  without  the 
pianoforte — those  whose  inward  singing  almost  breaks  their  hearts.”  (10, 

p.  263) 

“He  is  a  good  musician,  who  understands  the  music  without  the  score, 
and  the  score  without  the  music.  The  ear  should  not  need  the  eye,  the  eye 
should  not  need  the  (outward)  ear.”  (10,  p.  63) 

“In  a  word,  the  scherzo  of  the  symphony  seemed  to  me  too  slow,  the 
restlessness  of  the  orchestra,  trying  to  be  at  ease  with  it,  made  this  very 
observable.  Yet  what  dost  thou  in  Milan  care  about  it  all?  And  I  as  little, 
since  at  any  moment  I  can  imagine  the  scherzo  as  it  ought  to  be  played.”  (10, 
P.  38) 

“You  think  I  do  not  like  your  Tdyllen’?  Why,  I  am  constantly  playing 
them  to  myself.”  (9,  p.  293). 

“Try  to  sing  at  sight,  without  the  help  of  an  instrument,  even  if  you  have 
but  little  voice;  your  ear  will  thereby  gain  in  fineness.”  (10,  1,  410) 

“Sometime  I  am  so  full  of  music,  and  so  overflowing  with  melody,  that  I 
.find  it  simply  impossible  to  write  down  anything.”  (9,  p.  81) 

“But  if  you  knew  how  my  mind  is  always  working,  and  how  my  sym¬ 
phonies  would  have  reached  Op.  100,  if  I  had  but  written  them  down.”  (9,  p. 
81) 

“During  the  wrhole  of  this  letter  my  ‘Exercise  Fantastique’  has  been  run¬ 
ning  in  my  head  to  such  an  extent  that  I  had  better  conclude,  lest  I  should 
be  writing  music  unawares.”  (9,  p.  177) 

“The  piano  is  getting  too  limited  for  me.  In  my  latest  compositions  1 
often  hear  many  things  that  I  can  hardly  explain.” 

“Finally,  as  the  gods  have  given  me  powers  of  thought  and  imagination, 
to  make  life  brighter  and  happier,  why  shouldn’t  I  make  good  use  of  them, 
instead  of  letting  them  be  wasted.”  (9,  p.  117) 

“What  the  mere  fingers  create  is  nothing  but  mechanism ;  but  that  which 


282 


MARIE  AG  NEW 


you  have  listened  to  when  it  resounded  within  your  own  bosom  will  find 
its  echo  in  the  hearts  of  others.”  (11,  p.  283) 

“Philosophers  ....  are  certainly  mistaken  in  supposing  that  a  composer 
who  works  according  to  an  idea,  sets  himself  down  like  a  preacher  on  a 
Saturday  afternoon,  portions  out  his  task  in  the  customary  three  parts,  and 
works  it  up  accordingly.  The  creative  imagination  of  a  musician  is  some¬ 
thing  very  different,  and  though  a  picture,  an  idea  may  float  before  him,  he 
is  only  then  happy  in  his  labor  when  this  idea  comes  to  him  clothed  in 
lovely  melodies,  and  borne  by  the  same  invisible  hands  that  bore  the 
‘golden  bucket/  spoken  of  somewhere  by  Goethe.”  (11,  p.  60) 

“We  advise  him  not  to  write  at  his  instrument,  but  to  endeavor  rather 
to  bring  his  forms  from  within  than  to  draw  them  from  without.”  (11,  p.  500) 

“It  is  a  pleasant  sign  if  you  can  pick  out  pretty  melodies  on  the  keyboard; 
but  if  such  come  to  you  unsought,  rejoice,  for  it  proves  that  the  inward 
sense  of  time  pulsates  within  you.”  (10,  p.  417) 

“When  you  begin  to  compose,  do  it  all  with  your  brain.  Do  not  try  the 
piece  at  the  instrument  until  it  is  finished.  If  your  music  proceeds  from 
your  heart,  it  will  touch  the  hearts  of  others.”  (10,  1.  417) 

“People  err  when  they  suppose  that  composers  prepare  pens  and  paper 
with  the  predetermination  of  sketching,  painting,  expressing  this  or  that.  Yet 
we  must  not  estimate  outward  influences  too  lightly.  Involuntarily  an 
idea  sometimes  develops  itself  simultaneously  with  the  musical  fancy;  the 
eye  is  awake  as  well  as  the  ear,  and  this  ever-busy  organ  sometimes  holds 
fast  to  certain  outlines  amid  all  the  sounds  and  tones,  which,  keeping  pace 
with  the  music,  form  and  condense  into  clear  shapes.  The  more  elements 
congenially  related  to  music  which  the  thought  or  picture  created  in  tones 
contains  within  it,  the  more  poetic  and  plastic  will  be  the  expressiveness  of 
the  composition;  and  in  proportion  to  the  imaginativeness  and  keenness  of 
the  musician  in  receiving  these  impressions  will  be  the  elevating  and  touch¬ 
ing  power  of  his  work.”  (10,  pp.  250-1) 

Mozart 

Mozart  is  noted  for  the  large  perspective  of  his  auditory  im¬ 
agery.  When  his  compositions  were  finished,  he  heard  them 
mentally  as  a  whole,  just  as  an  artist  might  see  in  imagination  a 
picture  complete  with  all  its  details.  It  is  perhaps  due  to  this 
faculty  that  Mozart  holds  his  eminent  position  among  composers. 

Mozart's  musical  memory  was  marvellous.  Even  when  a  child, 
he  showed  unusual  aptitude  in  retaining  music.  It  was  when  he 
was  still  a  boy  that  he  accomplished  the  famous  “theft"  of  the 
“Miserere"  in  only  two  visits  to  the  Sistine  chapel.  In  later  life 
he  often  played  his  own  part  of  a  composition  from  memory 


THE  AUDITORY  IMAGERY  OF  GREAT  COMPOSERS 

when  he  had  written  out  the  other  parts,  and  had  no  time  left  in 
which  to  write  his  own.  It  is  said  that  frequently  the  brass  in¬ 
struments  had  no  part  in  his  original  score,  and  that  he  added 
these  afterward  on  separate  paper,  carrying  the  other  parts  in 
memory  (7,  p.  298). 

Mozart  attributed  this  wonderful  memory  to  his  auditory 
imagery.  Holmes,  his  biographer,  also  testifies  to  the  importance 
of  his  imagery.  He  tells  us  that  at  six,  Mozart  composed  in 
mental  music  without  the  aid  of  an  instrument,  and  that  ‘‘his 
power  in  mental  music  constantly  increased,  and  he  soon  imagined 
effects  of  which  the  original  type  existed  only  in  his  own  brain” 
(7,  p.  13)- 

So  prominent  was  Mozart’s  auditory  imagery  that  he  habitually 
translated  his  impressions  from  other  senses  into  auditory  terms. 
For  this  reason,  fine  scenery  always  stimulated  his  imagination, 
and  he  composed  at  his  best  when  out-of-doors. 

Mozart’s  auditory  imagery  was  well  supported  by  kinaesthetic 
imagery.  He  also  hummed  or  sang  his  musical  ideas  at  their 
inception. 

Mozart  tells  how  he  composed  as  follows: 

“When  I  am,  as  it  were,  completely  myself,  ....  my  ideas  flow  best  and 
most  abundantly.  Whence  and  how  they  come,  I  know  not,  nor  can  I  force 
them.  Those  ideas  that  please  me  I  retain  in  memory  and  am  accustomed, 
as  I  have  been  told,  to  hum  them  to  myself.  If  I  continue  in  this  way,  it 
soon  occurs  to  me  how  I  may  turn  this  or  that  morsel  to  account  so  as  to 
make  a  good  dish  of  it,  that  is  to  say,  agreeably  to  the  rules  of  counter¬ 
point,  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  various  instruments,  etc. 

“All  this  fires  my  soul,  and,  provided  I  am  not  disturbed,  my  subject  en¬ 
larges  itself,  becomes  methodized  and  defined,  and  the  whole,  though  it 
be  long,  stands  almost  complete  and  finished  in  my  mind,  so  that  I  can  sur¬ 
vey  it,  like  a  fine  picture  or  a  beautiful  statue,  at  a  glance.  Nor  do  I  hear 
in  my  imagination  the  parts  successively,  but  I  hear  them,  as  it  were,  all 
at  once  ( gleich  alles  zusammen).  What  a  delight  this  is  I  cannot  tell! 
All  this  inventing,  this  producing,  takes  place  in  a  pleasing,  lively  dream. 
Still,  the  actual  hearing  of  the  tout  ensemble  is,  after  all,  the  best.  What  has 
been  produced  thus  I  do  not  easily  forget,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  best  gift  I 
have  my  Divine  Maker  to  thank  for.  ^ 

“When  I  proceed  to  write  down  my  ideas,  I  take  out  of  the  bag  of  my 
memory,  if  I  may  use  that  phrase,  what  has  previously  been  collected  into  it 
in  the  way  I  have  mentioned.  For  this  reason,  the  committing  to  paper 


284 


MARIE  AGNEW 


is  done  quickly  enough,  for  everything  is,  as  I  said  before,  already  finished, 
and  it  rarely  differs  on  paper  from  what  it  was  in  my  imagination.”  (7,  pp. 

329-30) 

Berlioz 

Berlioz  was  extremely  sensitive.  Sense  perceptions  stimulated 
him  in  romantic  emotionalism  or  to  nervous  frenzy,  according 
to  their  character.  This  sensitivity  is  the  index  of  Berlioz’s  im¬ 
agination,  which  was  vivid,  realistic,  and  fantastic.  At  times 
his  imaginative  fancies  made  him  morbid;  at  others,  wildly  joy¬ 
ful.  Berlioz  heard  his  compositions  mentally.  He  objected  to 
the  use  of  any  instrument  in  composing,  dubbing  the  piano  the 
“grave  of  original  thought.”  Not  only  did  he  hear  his  own 
compositions  in  tonal  imagery,  but  he  imagined  the  productions 
of  other  composers,  and  was  sometimes  disappointed  in  their 
performance. 

His  themes  came  spontaneously.  Very  often  he  dreamt  them, 
and  wrote  them  down  on  awaking.  In  his  voluntary  quality,  his 
auditory  imagery  was  like  Mozart’s. 

In  the  following  extracts,  Berlioz  shows  how  he  used  his 

auditory  imagery  in  composing: 

% 

“If  I  had  any  paper  I  would  write  music  to  this  exquisite  poem ;  I  can 
hear  it”  (3,  p.  117) 

“Two  years  ago,  when  there  were  still  some  hopes  of  my  wife’s  recovery, 
....  I  dreamt  one  night  of  a  symphony. 

“On  awakening  I  could  still  recall  nearly  all  the  first  movement,  an 
allegro  in  A  minor.  As  I  moved  towards  my  writing-table  to  put  it  down,  I 
suddenly  thought: 

“  ‘If  I  do  this,  I  shall  be  drawn  on  to  compose  the  rest.  .  .’  With  a  shudder 
of  horror,  I  threw  aside  my  pen,  saying: 

“  ‘Tomorrow  I  shall  have  forgotten  the  symphony.’ 

“But  no !  Next  night  the  obstinate  motif  returned  more  clearly  than  before 
— I  could  even  see  it  written  out.  I  started  up  in  feverish  agitation, 
humming  it  over  and — again  my  decision  held  me  back,  and  I  put  the  tempta¬ 
tion  aside.  I  fell  asleep  and  next  morning  my  symphony  was  gone  forever.” 
(3*  P-  225) 

“Last  night  I  dreamt  of  music,  this  morning  I  recalled  it  all  and  fell  into 
one  of  those  supernal  ecstasies.  .  .  .  All  the  tears  of  my  soul  poured  forth 
as  I  listened  to  those  divinely  sonorous  smiles  that  radiate  from  the  angels 
alone.  Believe  me,  dear  friend,  the  being  who  could  write  such  miracles  of 
transcendent  melody  would  be  more  than  mortal.”  (3,  p.  232) 


THE  AUDITORY  IMAGERY  OF  GREAT  COMPOSERS  285 


T schaikozi’sky 

The  chief  characteristic  of  Tschaikowsky's  imagery  was  its 
marked  spontaneity.  His  musical  themes  came  to  him  not  only 
voluntarily,  but  forcefully,  with  a  compelling  power.  They  welled 
up  from  within  with  inconceivable  force  and  rapidity,  throwing 
him  into  a  condition  which  he  called  somnambulistic ,  in  which 
“the  soul  throbs  with  an  incomprehensible  and  indescribable  ex¬ 
citement,  so  that  almost  before  we  can  follow  this  swift  flight  of 
inspiration,  time  passes  literally  unreckoned  and  unobserved." 

Tschaikowsky’s  imagery  had  had  the  same  compelling  quality 
when  he  was  a  child.  At  four,  his  governess  once  found  him 
crying  long  after  the  other  children  had  gone  to  sleep.  There 
was  no  music  going  on  at  the  time,  but  when  she  asked  him  what 
was  the  matter,  he  replied,  “Oh,  this  music,  this  music!  Save 
me  from  it!  It  is  here,  here,”  pointing  to  his  head,  “and  will 
not  give  me  any  peace”  (14,  p.  13).  His  brother  says  that,  very 
early,  “musical  sounds  according  to  his  own  account,  followed 
him  everywhere,  whatever  he  was  doing”  (14,  p.  18). 

Fullness  and  exuberance  also  characterised  Tschaikowsky’s 
imagery.  The  melodies  of  his  compositions  never  came  to  him 
singly,  but  in  complete  form,  fully  harmonized.  The  basis  of 
his  vivid,  profuse  imagery  was  a  keen  sensitivity.  He  was  deeply 
affected  by  nature,  and  responded  to  it  much  as  did  Wordsworth. 

In  regard  to  the  function  of  Tschaikowsky’s  auditory  imagery 
his  brother  says  that  “whenever  Tschaikowsky  wrote  a  symphonic 
work,  he  already  heard  it  in  imagination  as  it  would  sound  in  the 
concert-room  at  Moscow”  (14*  P-  4°9)-  Tschaikowsky  himself 
describes  minutely  his  method  of  composing,  showing  the  part 
played  by  the  auditory  image.  In  particular,  he  notes  the  effect 
of  distraction— how  sounds  intruded  on  his  mental  music,  and 
broke  off  the  thread  of  his  inspiration. 

“It  would  be  vain  to  try  to  put  into  words  that  immeasurable  sense  of 
bliss  that  comes  over  me  directly  a  new  idea  awakens  in  me  and  begins  to 
assume  definite  form.  I  forget  everything .  and  behave  like  a  madman. 
Everything  within  me  starts  pulsing  and  quivering;  hardly  have  I  begun 
the  sketch  ere  one  thought  follows  another.  In  the  midst  of  this  magic 
process  it  frequently  happens  that  some  external  interruption  wakes  me 


286 


MARIE  AG  NEW 


from  my  somnambulistic  state :  a  ring  at  the  bell,  the  entrance  of  my  servant, 
the  striking  of  the  clock,  reminding  me  that  it  is  time  to  leave  off.  Dreadful, 
indeed,  are  such  interruptions.  Sometimes  they  break  the  thread  of  in¬ 
spiration  for  a  considerable  time,  so  that  I  have  to  seek  it  again.’’  (14,  p. 

274) 

“You  ask  me  how  I  manage  my  instrumentation.  I  never  compose  in  the 
abstract ;  that  is  to  say,  the  musical  thought  never  appears  otherwise  than 
in  a  suitable  external  form.  In  this  way,  I  invent  the  musical  idea  and  the 
instrumentation  simultaneously.  Thus  I  thought  out  the  scherzo  of  our 
symphony — at  the  moment  of  its  composition,  exactly  as  you  heard  it.  It 
is  inconceivable  except  as  a  pizzicato.  Were  it  played  with  a  bow,  it  would 
lose  all  its  charm  and  be  a  mere  body  without  a  soul.”  (14,  p.  281) 

“I  usually  write  my  sketches  on  the  first  piece  of  paper  to  hand.  I  jot 
them  down  in  the  most  abbreviated  form.  A  melody  never  stands  alone, 
but  invariably  with  the  harmonies  which  belong  to  it.  These  two  elements 
of  music,  together  with  the  rhythm,  must  never  be  separated ;  every  melodic 
idea  brings  its  own  inevitable  harmony  and  suitable  rhythm.”  (14,  p.  309) 

“Began  the  fifth  scene,  and  in  imagination  I  finished  it  yesterday,  but  in 
reality  only  got  through  it  early  today.”  (14,  p.  602) 

“Yesterday,  on  the  road  from  Voroshba  to  Kiev,  music  came  singing  and 
echoing  through  my  head.  ...  A  theme  in  embryo,  in  B  major,  took  pos¬ 
session  of  my  mind,  and  almost  led  me  on  to  attempt  a  symphony.”  (14, 
p.  140) 

“During  my  journey,  while  composing  it  (a  symphony)  in  my  mind,  I 
frequently  shed  tears.  Now  I  am  home  again,  I  have  settled  down  to  sketch 
out  the  work,  and  it  goes  with  such  ardour  that  in  less  than  four  days  1 
have  completed  the  first  movement,  while  the  rest  of  the  Symphony  is  clearly 
outlined  in  my  head.” 

All  day  long  this  duet  has  been  running  in  my  head,  and  under  its  in¬ 
fluence  I  have  written  a  song,  the  melody  of  which  is  very  reminiscent  of 
Massenet.”  (14,  p.  383) 


Wagner 

Wagner  seemed  to  have  apprehended  more  than  any  other 
composer  the  psychological  concept  of  the  image.  He  speaks  of 
visualizing  scenes  and  characters  and  he  frequently  uses  the  word 
image  in  much  the  same  way  as  it  is  used  in  modern  psychology. 
The  following  extract  shows  his  use  of  it : 

“My  whole  imagination  thrilled  with  images ;  long-lost  forms  for  which  I 
had  sought  so  eagerly  shaped  themselves  ever  more  and  more  clearly  into 
realities  that  lived  again.  There  rose  up  soon  before  my  mind  a  whole 
world  of  figures,  which  revealed  themselves  as  so  strangely  plastic  and 
primitive,  that,  when  1  saw  them  clearly  before  me  and  heard  their  voices 


THE  AUDITORY  IMAGERY  OF  GREAT  COMPOSERS  287 

in  my  heart,  I  could  not  account  for  the  almost  tangible  familiarity  and 
assurance  in  their  demeanor.”  (15,  p.  314) 

It  is  possible,  indeed,  that  Wagner  gained  his  concept  of  the 
image  through  contemporaries.  He  lived  during  the  time  when 
Galton  was  making  his  researches  on  imagery,  and  may  have 
been  familiar  with  Gabon’s  work.  Further,  he  was  an  omnivor¬ 
ous  reader  and  was  inordinately  fond  of  philosophy.  Either 
directly  or  through  the  work  of  German  philosophers,  he  may 
have  become  acquainted  with  the  notion  of  the  image  which 
was  set  forth  by  Hobbes  and  the  other  English  empiricists  and 
which  was  the  forerunner  of  the  present  day  concert.  He  may 
also  have  known  of  the  work  of  Taine.  His  comments  on  Kant, 
Schopenhauer,  and  Fuererbach  suggest  a  knowledge  of  scientific 
psychology. 

Wagner’s  imagery  was  unusually  persistent.  Operas  which 
he  conducted  often  haunted  him  so  long  as  to  be  extremely  dis¬ 
turbing.  The  shouting  of  the  Dresden  revolutionists  “re-echoed 
in  his  brain”  for  several  days. 

Wagner’s  visual  imagery  was  co-ordinate  with  his  auditory 
imagery.  He  visualized  scenes  and  characters  for  his  operas  at 
the  same  time  that  he  heard  the  music  for  them  in  imagination. 
In  listening  to  music,  he  lived  in  a  world  of  mental  sounds  and 
related  pictures. 

Although  the  composers  differ  in  the  pattern  of  auditory  image 
complex,  they  have  certain  features  in  common.  The  artistic 
type  of  mind  is  extremely  sensitive.  Insignificant  stimuli  often 
produce  on  the  artist  entirely  disproportionate  effects.  Nature  in 
all  its  aspects  gives  him  keen  sensory  enjoyment.  This  sensitivity 
parallels  vivid  imaginative  power. 

Spontaneity  of  imagery  is  also  characteristic  of  the  composer. 
His  themes  “occur”  or  “come  to”  him,  or  are  the  result  of  an 
“inner  impulse.”  This  voluntary  quality  of  images  is  due  to 
the  conscious  maturing  of  thought,  through  mental  saturation 
with  sound  images. 


A  PURSUIT  APPARATUS:  EYE-HAND 
COORDINATION 

By  Wilhelmine  Koerth,  M.A. 

The  instrument  described  in  this  article  was  designed  with  the 
cooperation  of  Dr.  Seashore  to  measure  capacity  for  the  acqui¬ 
sition  of  skill  in  coordination  of  eye  and  hand.  The  Miles’1 
Pursuit  Pendulum  suggested  the  use  of  a  moving  stimulus  fol¬ 
lowing  a  fixed  path  at  a  constant  speed  as  a  convenient  method 
of  measuring  eye-hand  coordination;  and  this  principle  was  in¬ 
corporated  in  a  simple,  readily  portable,  and  inexpensive  appara¬ 
tus.  In  the  form  as  finally  adopted  and  standardized,  Figure  i, 
the  apparatus  consists  of  a  rotating  wooden  disc  carrying  a 
polished  target  and  commutator  with  flexible  contact,  a  Veeder 
counter  operated  by  magnets,  a  control  key,  a  hinged  pointer, 
a  storage  battery,  and  a  small  phonograph. 


Fig.  i. — The  Pursuit  Apparatus:  a.  wooden  disc,  b.  brass  target,  c.  com¬ 
mutator,  d.  flexible  contact,  e.  Veeder  counter,  f.  magnets,  g.  control  key, 
h.  battery,  i.  hinged  pointer,  j.  phonograph,  i  and  2  binding  posts. 

The  wooden  disc,  27.5  cm.  in  diameter,  and  2.2  cm.  thick,  rests 
firmly  on  the  phonograph  plate,  revolving  with  it.  The  brass 
target,  1.9  cm.  in  diameter,  is  sunk  flush  with  the  surface  of  the 
disc  8  cm.  from  the  centre.  A  commutator  to  govern  the  counter 

1  Miles,  W.  R.  A  pursuit  pendulum.  Psychol.  Rev.,  1920,  27,  361-376. 


A  PURSUIT  APPARATUS:  EYE-HAND  COORDINATION  289 

is  provided  by  ten  brass  plates  sunk  in  the  edge  of  the  disc  in 
such  a  way  as  to  present  a  smooth  surface  of  alternating  metal 
and  wood  to  a  flexible  contact.  The  plate  and  target  are  com 
nected  by  concealed  wires.  The  disc  is  stained  dull  black  and  all 
metal  parts  are  highly  polished. 

The  flexible  contact  rests  lightly  against  the  edge  of  the  disc 
and  is  mounted  so  that  it  can  be  screwed  to  the  phonograph.  It 
consists  of  a  tapering  strip  of  spring  brass  held  to  a  post  by  a 
thumb  screw.  The  contact  is  made  practically  soundless  by  a 
small  rubber  band  wrapped  around  it  to  absorb  vibration. 

The  hinged  pointer  consists  of  a  10  cm.  x  2  cm.  wooden 
handle  to  which  is  attached,  like  a  one  way  hinge  a  30  gauge 
brass  wire  13  cm.  in  length  with  3.5  cm.  of  the  end  bent  at  right 
angles.  This  gives  a  pointer  that  can  be  held  in  the  hand  like  a 
knife  and  with  which  no  pressure  other  than  the  constant  weight 
of  the  wire  can  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  target. 

The  Yeeder  counter  is  operated  by  magnets  controlled  by  the 
commutator  on  the  edge  of  the  disc.  The  commutator  is  in 
circuit  only  when  the  control  key  is  closed  and  the  pointer  is 
held  on  the  target.  As  there  are  ten  breaks  in  the  commutator 
the  counter  will  record  in  tenths  of  seconds  the  time  the  observer 
is  able  to  hold  the  pointer  on  the  moving  target.  A  6  or  8  volt 
direct  current  is  ample  to  operate  the  counter.  This  can  readily 
be  supplied  by  a  6  volt  storage  battery,  4  dry  cells,  or  any  prop¬ 
erly  modified  direct  current. 

Any  phonograph  using  disc  records  can  be  used  if  it  can  be 
regulated  to  one  revolution  per  second. 

The  apparatus  is  connected  as  indicated  in  Figure  1.  The 
flexible  contact  (d)  is  connected  with  binding  post  1  of  the 
counter;  binding  post  2  with  the  battery  (h)  ;  the  battery  with 
the  hinged  pointer  (i).  This  leaves  the  circuit  broken  at  con¬ 
trol  key  (g)  and  at  the  pointer.  The  phonograph  must  be  timed 
to  run  at  the  rate  of  1  revolution  per  second. 

In  administering  the  test,  the  instructions  are  given  verbally 
and  are  demonstrated  at  the  same  time.  The  observer  is  then 
allowed  to  practice  for  two  minutes  and  is  instructed  to  stop  and 
start  the  phonograph  several  times  in  that  interval  and  to  speed 


200 


W1LHELM1NE  KOERTH 


up  with  the  motor.  When  the  observer  fully  understands  what 
he  is  to  do,  record  number  in  the  counter,  give  the  ' ‘ready’ *  sig¬ 
nal  and  in  four  or  five  seconds  close  the  control  key,  at  the  same 
time  giving  the  order  “go/’  Keep  the  key  closed  twenty  sec¬ 
onds,  then  release  key,  give  order  “stop,"  and  record  number  in 
the  counter.  The  twenty  second  interval  is  best  controlled  by 
counting  the  revolutions  of  the  disc.  Give  five  trials  as  rapidly 
as  possible  without  hurrying,  then  allow  a  complete  rest  period 
of  approximately  two  minutes.  Proceed  thus  until  twenty  trials 
have  been  given.  Record  the  number  registered  by  counter  at 
beginning  and  end  of  each  trial  and  from  this  compute  the 
record  for  that  trial.  This  gives  the  number  of  tenths  of  sec¬ 
onds  out  of  a  possible  200  that  the  observer  held  the  pointer  on 
the  target.  To  reduce  the  record  to  basis  of  percent  divide  the 
number  computed  from  counter  by  two. 

Instructions  to  the  observer :  “In  this  test  you  show  your 
ability  to  learn  a  new  movement.  At  first  you  may  not  be  able 
to  follow  the  target  well  at  all,  but  as  you  proceed  your  eye  and 
hand  begin  to  work  together  and  you  improve  much  when  you 
do  your  best.  Hold  the  pointer  like  this  :2  Keep  the  wrist  and 
pointer  straight.  With  the  body  erect  and  well  poised  keep  the 
pointer  on  the  target  like  this  :2  A  full  easy  swing  of  the  arm 
from  the  shoulder  is  best.  Let  the  other  hand  rest  lightly  on  the 
edge  of  the  phonograph.  With  the  command  “ready"'  start  the 
phonograph,  get  into  position,  and  follow  the  target  with  the 
pointer.3  When  the  target  is  revolving  at  top  speed,  I  will  close 
the  key  and  say  “go.”  Do  your  best  until  the  command  “stop,” 
then  stop  the  machine  and  stand  at  ease  until  the  next  signal. 
The  more  completely  you  relax  between  trials  the  more  rapidly 
you  will  learn.’" 

The  examination  of  the  records  made  by  126  observers  re¬ 
vealed  various  tendencies.  The  observers  fall  into  four  groups : 
those  who  start  low  and  end  low,  those  who  start  low  and  end 

2  The  pointer  should  be  grasped  firmly,  palm  down,  as  one  would  grasp 
the  handle  of  a  knife  with  a  full  hand  grasp.  Pointer  and  forearm  must  be 
held  as  nearly  in  line  as  possible  throughout  the  test. 

3  Tell  the  observer  to  begin  practice  here,  and  give  last  part  of  instructions 
just  before  beginning  the  real  test. 


A  PURSUIT  APPARATUS:  EYE-HAND  COORDINATION  291 

high,  those  who  start  high  and  end  higher,  and  those  who  start 
fairly  high  and  show  comparatively  little  improvement.  The 
fourth  type  is  not  as  well  marked  as  the  others  and  could,  per¬ 
haps,  be  grouped  with  the  other  types.  No  observer  failed  to 
make  progress.  Comparison  of  individual  trials  in  each  group 
of  five  also  shows  characteristic  types  of  observers.  There  were 
those  who  started  the  group  low  and  “warmed  up”  to  a  high 
score  at  the  end,  those  who  reached  high  score  the  third  trial 
and  slumped  in  the  fifth,  those  who  started  high,  slumped  in  the 
third  and  recovered  again  in  fifth,  those  who  started  high  and 
decreased  to  the  last  trial,  those  who  maintained  the  same  level, 
and  those  who  showed  no  consistency  in  their  performance. 
These  individual  trials  gave  in  many  cases  a  more  significant 
index  of  the  observer’s  nervous  stability  than  can  be  secured 
from  the  averages.  No  intensive  study  was  made,  however,  of 
the  significance  of  the  individual  trials. 

The  curve  of  distribution  tends  to  be  normal  if  the  averages 


0  6  15  25  35  45  55  66  75  85 

Fig.  2. — Distribution  Curves :  solid  line  for  20  trials ;  dash  line  for  5 
trials;  dot-dash  line  for  last  5  trials.  Figures  at  bottom  per  cent  of  time 
pointer  was  held  on  target;  figures  at  left,  per  cent  of  cases. 

of  the  twenty  trials  are  taken,  the  mode  falling  at  45  and  the 
extremes  at  5  and  75.  When  the  averages  of  the  first  five  trials 
are  taken  the  curve  skews  to  the  left,  and  with  the  averages  of 
the  last  five  trials  the  curve  flattens  and  skews  to  the  right  as 
shown  in  Figure  2.  Norms  constructed  on  these  data  are  shown 
in  Fig.  3. 

Typical  learning  curves  were  obtained  in  ten  practice  periods. 


292 


W1LHELMINE  KOERTH 


In  the  twelve  cases  studied  those  who  began  high  and  ended  high 
and  those  who  began  low  and  ended  high  on  the  first  twenty 
trials  made  better  scores  at  the  end  of  the  periods  than  those 


100 
90 

eo 

70 

eo 

eo 

40 

eo 

10 
10 
o 

100  90  60  70  60  60  40  30  20  10  O 

Fig.  3. — Norms:  solid  line,  average  of  20  trials;  dot-dash,  average  of  first 
5  trials ;  dash,  average  of  last  5  trials.  Figures  at  bottom,  per  cent  of 
time  pointer  was  held  on  target;  figures  at  left,  percentile  rank. 


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who  began  the  first  twenty  trials  low  or  only  fairly  high  and 
showed  little  improvement.  On  the  whole  there  is  some  evi¬ 
dence  that  a  high  score  at  the  end  of  the  first  twenty  trials  is 
prognostic  of  ultimate  skill,  but  more  cases  must  be  studied  be¬ 
fore  definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn. 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 

by 

Merrill  J.  Ream,  Ph.D. 

Contents. — Previous  uses  of  the  tapping  test;  the  present  problem ;  ap- 
paratus ;  method  of  procedure  ( type  of  movement  and  positions  in  perform - 
ance,  arm  position  in  tapping ,  finger  positions  in  tapping,  the  length  of  the 
tapping  period,  the  optimum  number  of  trials,  directions  for  giving  the  test, 
sources  of  error  in  tapping,  the  effect  of  practice  on  the  tapping  rate,  rates 
and  norms );  age  and  sex  differences;  relevant  correlations;  factors  con¬ 
ditioning  rapidity  of  performance  in  tapping,  application  and  future  ex¬ 
perimentation  ;  bi b  liograp  hy. 

Previous  uses  of  the  tapping  test 

The  tapping  test  has  had  a  long  history  in  experimental  psych¬ 
ology.  There  has  accumulated  a  great  variety  of  methods  of 
procedure  which  the  standardizer  must  investigate  one  at  a  time. 
This  diversity  of  procedure  is  accounted  for  by  the  almost  end¬ 
less  array  of  uses  to  which  the  test  has  been  put.  Some  of  the 
principal  ones  have  been : 

(1)  A  part  of  a  general  ability  scale  for  school  children. 

Kirkpatrick  (26),  Pyle  (34),  Bickersteth  (4). 

(2)  Part  of  a  scale  of  tests  for  adolescents.  Woolley  (56). 

(3)  Part  of  a  scale  of  tests  for  college  freshmen.  Bingham  (7). 

(4)  A  measure  of  sex  differences.  Burt  &  Moore  (11),  Thompson  (43). 

(5)  An  index  of  voluntary  motor  ability.  Gilbert  (17),  Dresslar  (14). 

(6)  An  index  of  native  rapidity  of  movement.  Bryan  (10). 

(7)  A  measure  of  the  duration  of  the  contraction  and  of  the  relaxation 
of  a  movement.  Franz  (16). 

(8)  An  index  of  right-handedness.  Wells  (50),  Bolton  (9),  Bryan  (10). 

(9)  The  effects  of  cross-education.  Davis  (13). 

(10)  An  index  of  fatigue.  Gilbert  (17),  Kelly  (24),  Wells  (47),  Thomp¬ 
son  (43),  Moore  (32),  Johnson  (23),  Trace  (44). 

( 1 1 )  The  effects  of  practice  and  warming  up.  Wells  (48),  Stecher  (41). 

(12)  One  of  a  series  of  tests  of  working  efficiency  with  reference  to 

(a)  The  effect  of  caffein.  Hollingworth  (20). 

(b)  The  effect  of  alcohol.  Hollingworth  (22),  and  Poffenberger. 

(c)  The  effect  of  restricted  diet.  Benedict,  Miles,  Roth,  and 
(Smith  (3). 

(d)  The  effect  of  humidity.  Stecher  (41). 

(e)  The  effect  of  loss  of  sleep.  Gilbert  and  Patrick  (33). 

(f)  The  effect  of  dental  treatment  on  school  children.  Kohnky  (27). 

(g)  The  most  efficient  working  period  of  the  day.  Marsh  (31), 
Hollingworth  (21),  Stecher  (41). 

(13)  A  test  for  the  selection  of  employees  (shell  inspectors).  Winchester 
Arms  Company  (29). 


294 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


(14)  A  measure  of  occupational  efficiency  in  hand  sewing.  Hollingworth 
and  Poffenberger  (2 2). 

(15)  The  motor  effects  of  nervous  and  mental  disease,  particularly  mania 
and  melancholia.  Franz  (16). 

(16)  The  effect  of  attention  on  the  maximum  rate  of  voluntary  movement. 
Effect  of  distractions.  Bliss  (8). 

(17)  The  relative  rapidity  of  movement  of  different  body  joints.  Bryan 

(10).  ...  ’ 

(18)  The  relation  of  physical  ability  to  mental  ability  at  large.  Bagley  (2), 
Bolton  (9). 

The  present  problem.  The  present  problem  is,  in  general,  to 
measure  a  basic  motor  capacity;  in  particular,  the  problem  is  to 
plan  a  test  which  will  call  into  play  a  simple  repeated  movement, 
fundamental,  native  in  character  and  easy  to  measure,  and  which 
will  not  call  into  play  accessory,  coordinated,  and  learned  move¬ 
ments.  This  fundamental  capacity  for  speed  in  a  simple  repeated 
movement  we  call  motility.  It  has  usually  been  known  as  motor 

As  a  measure  of  motility,  the  tapping  test  has  the  following 
advantages:  it  is  one  of  the  most  objective  that  can  be  applied; 
the  test  is  simple,  easily  given,  and  quickly  learned.  It  has  the 
advantage  of  readily  stimulating  the  observer. 

In  the  standardization,  the  idea  of  general  use  was  continually 
kept  in  mind,  so  at  all  times  a  standard  commercial  article  or 
piece  of  apparatus  was  chosen  over  a  highly  technical  piece  of 
laboratory  apparatus,  provided  such  a  preference  involved  no 
sacrifice  of  accuracy  in  the  test.  Another  guiding  principle  has 
been  that  there  is  no  need  for  further  refinement  of  procedure, 
recording  instrument,  or  timing  device  than  the  variability  of 
the  test  justified.  For  example  the  least  variation  of  a  single 
trial  of  five  seconds  from  another  trial  would  be  one  tap,  or 
approximately  .12  of  a  second.  The  latent  time  of  the  electro¬ 
magnet  was  found  to  be  approximately  .003  of  a  second  on  the 
make.  So  for  all  practical  purposes  of  the  test  this  latent  time 
could  be  entirely  disregarded. 

Apparatus 

The  tapping  instrument.  The  ordinary  telegraph  key  has 
been  used  as  the  tapping  instrument  by  Wells  (47),  Bagley  (2), 
Davis  (13),  Dresslar  (14),  Link  (29),  Smith  (39),  and  Wood- 
worth  (54). 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


295 


The  tapping  board  and  stylus,  fully  described  by  Whipple  (51), 
was  the  instrument  chosen  by  Hollingworth  (20),  Marsh  (31), 
Stecher  (41),  Whipple  (51),  Woolley  (56).  Von  Kries  (45) 
has  a  very  similar  device,  a  wire  attached  to  the  finger  with  which 
the  observer  taps  on  a  metallic  plate. 

The  method  of  pencil  dots  on  paper  was  employed  by  Binet 
and  Vaschide  (6),  Franz  (16),  and  Burt  and  Moore  (11).  Es¬ 
sentially  the  same  was  the  making  of  pricks  in  paper  with  a  pointed 
stylus  used  by  Abelson  (1)  and  Burt  (11).  This  method, 
modified  slightly  by  making  small  vertical  lines  on  paper,  was 
used  by  Kirkpatrick  (26)  and  Franz  (16). 

Scripture  and  Moore  (36)  used  a  thumb  and  finger  key,  with 
two  slides ;  the  thumb  slide  held  stationary  and  the  fing'er  slide 
movable.  Trace  (44)  used  a  heavy  resistance  thumb  and  finger 
key.  Similar  to  this  was  a  finger  movement,  directly  recorded 
on  a  revolving  drum  by  means  of  a  marker  attached  to  the  finger, 
the  method  of  Benedict,  Miles,  Roth  and  Smith  (3). 

Johnson  (23)  devised  a  triangular  key  whose  equilateral  slides 
measured  20  cm.  The  subject  tapped  successively  at  each  of  the 
corners. 

The  tapping  board  and  the  telegraph  key  have  been  used  by 
the  majority  of  experimenters.  The  following  experiment  was 
designed  to  get  actual  data  on  the  relative  value  of  the  two  tapping 
devices : 

Sixteen  observers,  nine  men,  seven  women.  Tapping  board  and  stylus, 
telegraph  key;  1  mm.  amplitude,  100  g.  resistance,  clamped  to  top  of  table. 
Ten  trials  taken  with  each  individual,  five  on  each  apparatus.  Eight  ob¬ 
servers  were  given  the  first  five  trials  on  tapping  board  and  the  other  eight 
observers  were  given  the  first  five  trials  on  the  key. 

The  results  show  an  average  faster  rate  of  1.3  taps  in  a  five 
second  period  of  tapping.  Eleven  subjects  showed  faster  work 
on  the  key  and  five  on  the  tapping  board.  Four  of  the  later  five, 
however  belonged  to  the  group  of  eight  tappers  whose  five  trials 
on  the  tapping  board  followed  their  five  trials  on  the  key.  This 
brings  in  the  effect  of  warming  up.  The  second  five  trials  were 
faster  on  the  average  by  1.7  taps  during  a  five  second  period. 

There  are,  however,  some  manifest  objections  to  the  tapping 
board  device.  The  amplitude  of  the  up  and  down  movement 


296 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


can  not  be  regulated :  some  observers  will  make  large  movements 
in  spite  of  all  charges  to  the  contrary  on  the  part  of  the  ex¬ 
perimenter.  Whipple's  (51)  fear  that  to  impose  a  restriction 
on  the  type  of  movement  would  reduce  the  record  of  many  sub¬ 
jects  seems  unfounded.  To  make  the  movement  uniform  is  just 
what  is  desired.  A  similar  source  of  error  is  a  scraping  move¬ 
ment  on  the  tapping  board.  A  very  slight  tap,  for  example,  when 
the  stylus  is  allowed  to  bounce  on  the  board,  is  not  accurately 
recorded.  The  telegraph  key  on  the  other  hand  is  not  open  to 
these  objections.  The  telegraph  key  was  therefore  adopted  as 
the  tapping  instrument.  It  has  an  additional  adantage  in  being 
a  staple  article,  purchasable  anywhere. 

The  amplitude  of  the  telegraph  key.  The  amplitude  as  here 
considered  is  measured  at  the  button  of  the  key,  the  distance  the 
observer  must  move  the  key  to  make  a  tap.  Bryan  (10)  found 
that  extent  of  amplitude  made  no  difference  in  the  number  of 
taps  accomplished.  Binet  and  Courtier  (5)  suggest  that  the 
shorter  the  movement,  the  slower  it  is  made;  within  limits,  a 
series  of  fast  movements  are  made  in  approximately  equal  time 
regardless  of  length  of  movement.  Von  Kries  (45)  considered 
a  certain  median  distance  of  about  10  mm.  the  optimum  ampli¬ 
tude.  In  Bryan’s  (10)  figures  no  more  than  seven  records  were 
made  for  each  amplitude.  Binet  and  Courtier  (5)  offered  no 
data  in  support  of  their  statement. 

The  matter  was  therefore  again  put  to  experiment,  as  follows: 

a  mm.,  3mm.,  7mm.  amplitudes.  Amplitude  measured  at  the  button  of  the 
key.  100  g.  resistance.  Average  time  per  tap  given  in  hundredths  of  a  sec¬ 
ond,  computed  for  25  taps.  Hence,  the  smaller  score,  the  faster  rate.  18  ob¬ 
servers,  6  trials  taken  double  fatigue  order.  Result :  average  time —  1  mm., 
.128  sec.;  3mm.,  .130  sec.;  7mm.,  .134  sec. 

Thus  the  1  mm,  amplitude  results  in  slightly  faster  tapping 
than  the  3mm.  amplitude,  and  noticeably  faster  than  the  7  mm. 
When  asked  to  state  which  amplitude  they  liked  best  the  observers 
were  evenly  divided  between  1  mm.  and  3  mm.  preferences.  It 
was  evident  in  giving  the  test  that  the  7mm.  distance  was  too 
long.  It  was  very  difficult  to  make  observers  go  the  full  ampli¬ 
tude  of  7  mm.,  they  would  try  to  shorten  the  distance  of  the  tap. 
Without  doubt  it  takes  more  time  to  move  7  mm.  than  1  mm. 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY  297 

The  same  was  true  of  3  mm.  but  to  less  extent.  It  seemed  that 
for  an  occasional  person,  a  rapid  movement  of  only  1  mm.  in 
extent  was  too  tiny  for  his  motor  set-up;  i.e.,  for  natural  work. 
But  this  disadvantage  was  so  slight  and  occurred  so  rarely,  that 
it  was  not  considered  of  sufficient  importance  to  forsake  the 
small  amplitude.  Because  of  the  faster  results  obtained  it  was 
decided  to  adopt  the  1  mm.  amplitude. 

The  recording  instrument.  There  are  two  general  classes  of 
recording  methods:  (1)  the  graphic  record  and  (2)  some 
form  of  counter,  either  electrical  or  mechanical.  The  following 
investigators  recorded  the  tapping  by  the  graphic  method,  usually 
the  smoked  drum:  Whipple  (51),  Johnson  (23),  Woodworth 
(54),  Smith  (39),  Dressier  (14),  Moore  (32),  Kohnky  (27), 
Wells  (47),  Bingham  (7),  and  Benedict,  Miles,  Roth  and 
Smith  (3).  The  following  used  some  form  of  electric  counter: 
Hollingworth  (20),  Davis  (13),  Pyle  (34),  Stecher  (41),  Link 
(29),  Marsh  (31,  and  Bagley  (2).  Some  kind  of  mechanical 
counter  was  used  by  Bickersteth  (4),  Bolton  (9),  Thompson 
(43),  Kelley  (24),  and  Gilbert  (18).  Gilbert’s  (18)  counter 
was  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  an  alarm  clock. 

The  graphic  method  furnishes  accurate  detail.  It  is  the  only 
method  by  which  the  time  of  separate  taps  can  be  studied,  and 
consequently  is  the  sole  means  of  measuring  the  regularity  of  the 
tapping  throughout  the  tapping  period. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  present  investigation,  the  graphic 
record  with  Seashore’s  duplicate  recorder  was  used;  the  time 
line  was  marked  off  by  a  pendulum  beating  seconds.  By  this 
method  the  number  of  taps  made  in  a  given  second  could  be  as¬ 
certained  but  not  the  duration  of  a  single  tap.  The  method  of 
the  phonograph  chronograph,  as  developed  in  the  Iowa  labora¬ 
tory,  proved  a  much  more  refined  graphic  procedure.  The  taps 
were  graphically  recorded  on  a  revolving  paper  disc.  By  placing 
the  disc  on  a  large  ruled  dial  scale,  the  duration  of  each  tap  would 
be  read  directly  in  thousandths  of  a  second  when  the  disc  was 
accurately  timed  to  revolve  once  per  second.  A  good  phonograph 
revolves  to  an  error  of  .001  second  per  revolution. 


298 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


The  disadvantages  of  the  graphic  record,  however,  are  as  ev¬ 
ident  as  its  merits.  The  chief  drawback  is  the  laborious  process 
of  reading  the  records.  This  factor  practically  limits  its  useful¬ 
ness  to  the  laboratory. 

To  facilitate  the  recording,  the  counter  method  was  investi¬ 
gated.  The  first  tried  was  the  Harvard  tapping  machine  with 
its  Yeeder  chronometer.  This  apparatus  was  neat  and  compact 
but  it  was  discovered  that  it  would  not  record  accurately  as  high 
as  ten  taps  per  second  for  the  following  reasons :  the  armature 
of  the  magnet  was  poorly  arranged,  the  magnetic  pull  being 
diagonal  and  of  least  force  at  the  beginning  of  the  armature’s 
movement,  where  it  should  be  direct  and  strongest;  too  long  a 
movement  of  the  armature  was  necessary  to  operate  the  rachet; 
and  the  chronometer  counted  on  the  break  which  made  it  sus¬ 
ceptible  to  tremors.  The  Hollerith  dial  chronometer  also 
proved  to  be  unsatisfactory. 

The  timing  instrument.  Besides  the  selection  of  the  record¬ 
ing  device  is  the  choice  of  an  appropriate  and  accurate  means  of 
timing  the  tapping  period.  Moore  (32),  Seashore  (37),  and 
Johnson  (23)  used  a  100  vd.  fork  in  connection  with  the  graphic 
record;  this  is,  of  course,  the  most  accurate  method  and  is  of 
value  when  the  purpose  is  to  study  the  duration  of  a  single  tap, 
but  it  is  manifestly  too  cumbersome  when  the  duration  of  the 
tapping  period  is  five  seconds  (and  with  many  investigators  the 
period  is  much  longer).  Whipple  (51)  used  a  seconds’  pen¬ 
dulum,  Dresslar  (14)  a  clock  for  recording  seconds,  and  Benedict, 
Miles,  Roth  and  Smith  (3)  a  Seth  Thomas  clock  which  divided 
the  tapping  into  two  second  intervals.  These  methods  are  all 
dependent  on  a  graphic  recording  instrument.  Of  the  investi¬ 
gators  who  used  counters,  Wooley  (56)  and  Woodworth  (54) 
used  the  stop  watch  and  Davis  (13)  an  ordinary  watch.  Many 
experimenters  made  no  mention  of  the  means  of  measuring  time. 

It  was  decided  to  determine  by  experiment  the  relative  ac¬ 
curacy  of  the  ordinary  timing  methods.  Five  methods  were 
tried:  two  auditory  (metronome,  and  click  in  the  receiver  from 
the  revolving  disc  of  a  timed  phonograph)  and  three  visual 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY  299 

(swinging  pendulum,  the  stop  watch,  and  the  ordinary  watch). 
Three  observers.  Five  trials  on  each  method. 

Auditory.  Av.  error  in  estimating  a  five  second  interval: 

Metronome  . 055  sec.  M.V.  .026 

Click  in  receiver  . 116  “  “  “  .030 

Visual. 

Swinging  pendulum  . 179  “  “  “  .104 

Stop  watch  . 212  “  “  “  .067 

Ordinary  watch  . 317  “  “  “  .156 

The  inaccuracies  of  timing  with  the  stop  watch  and  the  ordinary 
watch  are  evident. 

The  new  tapping  apparatus.  An  attempt  was  made  to  con¬ 
struct  a  counter  which  would  obviate  the  main  difficulties  in 
recording  and  timing  which  have  been  mentioned.  In  its  final 
form  the  counter  devised  consisted  of  a  Veeder  chronometer 
mounted  with  a  double  coil  door-bell  magnet  of  eight  ohms’ 
resistance,  size  of  each  coil  approximately  1  1-2  inches  by  1  inch. 
The  magnetic  pull  on  the  armature  was  direct  and  it  was  attached 
to  the  chronometer  at  a  small  radius,  thus  necessitating  but  a 
short  movement  of  the  armature  to  operate.1 

The  counter  was  further  equipped  with  a  double  action  key 
which,  connecting  with  the  metronome  circuit,  insured  accurate 
timing  of  the  tapping  period.  (See  Fig.  1.) 

Tests  showed  that  it  would  record  a  20  vd.  fork,  and  no  tap¬ 
ping  reaches  that  speed.  The  voltage  required  is  listed  as  fol¬ 
lows  : 

Insufficient  to  operate  3.8  volts 

Sufficient  to  operate  a  10  vd.  fork  accurately  5.3  volts 
Sufficient  to  operate  a  20  vd.  fork  accurately  6.8  volts 

The  method  of  manipulation  is  as  follows:  The  tapping  is 
started  when  the  contact  is  open  in  the  metronome,  at  which  time 
the  bar  (SK)  is  horizontally  thrown  to  the  contact  at  (M2). 
The  recording  will  then  begin  as  soon  as  the  circuit  is  closed  in 
the  mercury  cup  of  the  metronome.  During  the  succeeding  second, 
when  the  wire  is  in  the  mercury,  the  bar  (S  K)  is  pressed  down 
to  a  contact  at  (S),  thus  the  circuit  is  shunted  from  the  me¬ 
tronome.  The  purpose  of  the  shunt,  is  of  course,  to  keep  the 

1  This  apparatus  is  now  made  by  C.  H.  Stoelting  Co.,  Chicago. 


300 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


M  is  a  metronome  with  a  mercury  contact;  B,  a  battery;  K,  a  telegraph 
key;  and  C  a  counter.  The  Veeder  counter  VC  is  operated  by  the  magnet. 
The  key  SK  closes  the  circuit  through  the  mercury  contact  by  a  horizontal 
movement.  A  downward  pressure  of  this  key  makes  contact  at  S  and  shunts 
the  mercury  contact. 

circuit  closed  while  the  mercury  contact  is  broken.  On  the  fifth 
second,  when  the  wire  is  again  in  the  mercury,  the  key  (SK) 
is  raised;  this  permits  the  metronome  contact  to  determine  the 
end  of  the  tapping  period.  Immediately  after  the  breaking  of 
the  circuit  in  the  metronome,  the  experimenter  breaks  the  hori¬ 
zontal  connection  at  (M2)  and  tells  the  subject  to  stop  tapping. 

Thus  the  experimenter’s  own  reaction  time  is  entirely  elim¬ 
inated.  Any  exact  interval  of  time  can  be  taken,  with  the  single 
reservation,  however,  that  the  interval  of  time  must  be  an  odd 
number  of  seconds.  The  limit  of  accuracy  is  set  by  the  accuracy 
of  the  metronome  beat. 

Methods  of  Procedure 

Type  of  movement  and  positions  in  performance.  Tapping 
tests  have  been  made  use  of  in  various  movements.  Most  of  the 
arm  joints  have  been  subjected  to  experimentation;  tapping  has 
been  done  even  by  the  foot  and  the  big  toe.  The  full  arm  shoulder 
joint  was  involved  in  one  of  Kelly’s  (24)  experiments.  Binet 
and  Courtier  (5)  used  the  forearm  movement  and  asserted  that 
it  was  faster  than  either  the  finger  or  the  full  arm  and  also 
the  most  natural  movement.  Dresslar  (14),  Binet  and  Vaschide 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


30 1 


(6),  and  Wooley  (56)  rested  the  forearm  on  a  firm  support 
and  confined  the  tapping  to  the  wrist  as  far  as  possible,  Bol¬ 
ton  (9),  Moore  (32),  and  Benedict,  Miles,  Roth,  and  Smith  (3) 
used  the  finger  movement  only.  To  do  so,  it  was  required  in 
most  cases  to  strap  the  forearm  and  wrist  to  the  table.  Bryan 
(10)  tested  the  speed  of  all  the  joints  of  the  upper  extremities 
and  found  the  elbow  and  the  wrist  the  fastest  joints.  His  results 
are  as  follows : 

Taps  per  second 


Shoulder  .  5.2 

Elbow  .  8.8 

Wrist  .  Ti.4 

Metacarpo-phalangeal  .  7.6 

First  interphalangeal  .  6.0 

Second  interphalangeal  .  4.3 


McAllister  also  found  the  elbow  and  wrist  to  be  the  fastest  joints. 
Kelly  (24)  stated  that  tapping  with  forearm  is  faster  than  with 
the  forefinger  in  about  the  ratio  of  15  to  13. 

With  all  this  unanimity  of  opinion,  it  was  not  difficult  from 
the  point  of  view  of  maximum  speed  to  adopt  the  forearm  move¬ 
ment.  The  wrist  was  allowed  free  play  in  so  far  as  it  contributed 
to  the  forearm  tapping  movement;  in  short,  the  movement  chosen 
was  the  easiest  to  perform,  the  most  natural,  and  in  addition 
the  most  rapid. 

An  extended  comparison  of  horizontal  and  vertical  tapping 
under  various  conditions  revealed  a  very  slight  advantage  in 
speed  for  the  horizontal  position  when  the  horizontal  key  was 
located  in  a  convenient  position  under  the  table,  70  cm.  from 
the  floor.  However,  the  vertical  tapping  was  adopted  as  the 
standard  method  of  giving  the  test  because :  practically  all  for¬ 
mer  investigators  have  used  this  position;  the  key  is  more  easily 
set  up  on  the  top  of  the  desk  or  table ;  the  vertical  tapping  has  the 
psychological  advantage  of  holding  the  attention  better,  and 
therefore  getting  better  effort  from  many  observers. 

Arm  position  in  tapping.  Many  experimenters  rested  the 
elbow  and  forearm  on  the  table:  of  these  Binet  and  \  aschide 
(6),  Stecher  (41),  Davis  (13),  and  Dresslar  (14)  are  examples. 
Gilbert  (17)  on  the  other  hand  maintained  that  the  arm  held 
free  from  any  support  was  the  most  rapid  way  of  tapping.  The 


302 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


two  positions  were  subjected  to  experimentation  as  follows:  (i) 
observer  sitting  alongside  the  table  with  arm  resting  on  it; 
(2)  observer  facing  table  with  arm  held  free  from  any  support. 
The  free  arm  position  gave  noticeably  faster  results — .120  sec.: 
.129  sec.  Resting  the  arm  on  the  table  appeared  to  interfere 
with  the  tapping.  With  but  one  exception,  all  observers  ex¬ 
pressed  a  preference  for  the  free  arm  position.  The  free  arm 
position  also  showed  greater  regularity  of  tapping. 

Finger  positions  in'  tapping.  Bagley  (2)  made  use  of  the 
rather  novel  method  of  “trilling'’  a  Morse  key.  The  objection 
to  “trilling”  as  practiced  by  pianists  is  that  ability  in  this  line 
is  a  result  of  training.  It  would  be  quite  difficult  for  some  and 
easy  for  practiced  pianists.  Any  such  movement,  which  is  essen¬ 
tially  accessory  rather  than  fundamental,  would  be  unfair  as  a 
measure  of  motility. 

A  more  common  finger  position  has  been  that  of  holding  the 
finger  just  free  from  contact  with  the  key.  A  second  finger  ar¬ 
rangement  was  the  holding-key  position  in  which  the  key  was 
grasped  by  the  thumb  and  two  fingers. 

Experiment  on  twenty  subjects  revealed  no  significant  differ¬ 
ence  in  the  speed  for  the  two  methods.  (Key  grasped,  .127  sec. ; 
key  free,  .129  sec.)  The  important  defect  of  free-key  tapping 
movement  is  that  the  amplitude  of  the  movement  can  not  be  kept 
constant.  Some  observers  insist  on  lifting  the  fingers  from  the 
key  during  the  tapping,  unless  they  in  some  way  have  hold  of 
the  key. 

The  length  of  the  tapping  period. — The  literature  on  tapping 
shows  a  great  assortment  of  methods  in  regard  to  the  duration 
of  the  test.  Bolton  (9)  chose  5  seconds,  Davis  (13)  8  seconds, 
of  which  only  the  last  5  seconds  were  recorded.  Smith  (39) 
used  8  seconds;  Abelson  (1),  Kirkpatrick  (26),  and  Benedict, 
Miles,  Roth  and  Smith  (3)  10  seconds;  English  (15)  and  Burt 
and  Moore  (11)  15  seconds ;  Wells  (50)  20  seconds;  Gilbert  (17) 
45  seconds;  Kelly  (24),  Link  (29)  and  Bickersteth  (4)  60 
seconds;  Thompson  (43)  2  minutes  unless  the  subject  had  already 
given  out;  and  Moore  (32)  continued  the  experiment  until  the 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


303 


subject  could  tap  no  longer.  Some  investigators  record  time 
instead  of  number  of  taps.  Seashore  (37)  measured  the  duration 
of  one  complete  movement  of  the  finger  (a  tap)  in  hundredths 
of  a  second.  The  record  was  taken  at  the  end  of  7  seconds  of 
tapping.  Marsh  (31)  took  the  time  for  100  taps,  Dresslar 
(14)  for  300,  and  Hollingworth  (21)  for  500  taps. 

Doubtless  the  use  to  which  the  test  is  put  will  have  an  im¬ 
portant  bearing  on  the  duration  of  the  tapping  period.  If,  as  in 
the  present  investigation,  the  purpose  is  to  measure  rapidity  of 
movement,  it  would  be  useless  to  continue  the  experiment  after 
the  speed  had  begun  to  decrease  noticeably.  Wells’  (50)  figures 
for  30  seconds  of  tapping  showed  a  continuous  decrease  in  speed, 
the  first  5  seconds  being  fastest  and  the  last  5  seconds  slowest. 
Davis  (13)  noted  in  this  connection  that  on  lengthy  series  of 
taps  there  were  waves  of  rapidity,  followed  in  each  case  by 
slowing-up.  The  ease  of  rapid  tapping  varied. 

The  work  of  Benedict,  Miles,  Roth  and  Smith  (3)  is  an  ex¬ 
ample  of  the  ten  seconds’  period.  Their  work  is  the  latest 
thorough  study  of  this  problem.  But  a  period  of  ten  seconds  is 
too  long  for  a  test  of  mere  speed :  this  was  clearly  shown  in  the 
records  of  these  investigators.  Fatigue  soon  became  operative, 
there  being  a  steady  fall  in  each  of  the  five  two-seconds’  intervals 
throughout  the  ten  seconds.  The  progressive  decrease  from 
each  two-seconds’  interval  was  uniformly  0.3  or  0.4  of  a  complete 
finger  movement.  Bolton  (9)  stated  that  even  five  seconds  was 
too  long  for  the  most  rapid  work. 

To  study  the  tapping  throughout  the  five  seconds’  interval  it 
was  necessary  to  revert  to  the  graphic  method  of  recording. 
The  average  number  of  taps  in  each  second  of  the  five-seconds’ 
interval  for  18  observers,  5  trials  each,  was:  1st  second,  7.2; 
2nd  second,  7.4;  3rd  second,  7.2;  4th  second,  7.1 ;  and  5th  second, 
7.1.  Within  an  interval  of  5  seconds  the  decrease  in  speed  is 
very  little. 

Related  to  the  duration  of  the  tapping  period,  is  the  selection 
of  the  proper  time  to  start  the  recording.  Bingham  (7)  insisted 
that  the  very  first  taps  should  be  recorded.  In  the  present  study 


304 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


it  was  decided  to  exclude  the  first  few  taps  because  a  study  of 
the  graphic  record  showed  frequent  irregularities  in  the  first 
part  of  the  second  of  tapping,  probably  due  to  the  inertia  of 
getting  started.  Accordingly  in  the  standardized  procedure,  the 
stimulus  “Go”  is  given  about  a  second  before  the  recording  be¬ 
gins. 

The  optimum  number  of  trials.  No  investigator  recorded 
more  than  five  trials.  Wells  (50)  and  Bolton  (9)  each  took  five 
series,  English  (15)  recorded  four,  which  were  preceded  by  a 
ten  seconds’  practice  trial,  Bagley  (2)  and  Benedict,  Miles,  Roth 
and  Smith  (3)  took  three  and  Smith  (39)  only  two  trials.  In 
the  study  of  this  question  which  follows  it  is  quite  clear  that  the 
observers  do  not  reach  their  maximum  speed  in  five  trials.  An 
initial  warming  up  period  seems  to  be  necessary.  Thirty  ob¬ 
servers,  ten  men  and  twenty  women  were  given  twenty-five  trials 
of  tapping,  preceded  in  each  case  by  at  least  two  preliminary  prac¬ 
tice  trials.  The  results  of  the  thirty  observers  were  averaged  for 
each  trial.  With  conditions  standard,  the  following  figures  show 
average  number  of  taps  in  five  seconds  for  successive  periods. 

1st  practice  2nd  practice  1st  2nd  3rd  4th  5th  6th  7th  8th 

36.6  38.3  38.8  38.9  39.4  39.5  39.5  39.9  39.5  40.4 

9th  10th  nth  1 2th  13th  14th  .  .  .  .  23rd  24th  25th 

40.1  40.3  40.7  40.6  40.1  40.8  4 1. 1  41.4  41. 1 

The  results  show  that  fatigue  does  not  operate  to  any  noticeable 

extent  during  twenty-five  successive  trials,  when  the  tapping 

period  of  a  single  trial  is  no  more  than  five  seconds.  After  the 

fifteenth  period  there  is  essentially  no  further  improvement  and 

no  falling  off.  The  average  performance  for  different  number 

of  trials  in  terms  of  taps  per  5  sec.  is  as  follows: 

Average  for  20  trials  40.3  m.v.  .6 
Average  for  20  trials  40.3  m.v.  .6 
Average  for  15  trials  39.9  m.v.  .3 
Average  for  25  trials  40.4  m.v.  .7 

Obviously  it  would  be  desirable  to  give  as  few  trials  as  possible, 
if  in  doing  so,  there  would  be  no  sacrifice  of  speed  or  ac¬ 
curacy.  The  scores  computed  from  twenty-five  trials,  showed 
a  correlation  with  scores,  computed  from  twenty  trials,  of  r.  .99, 
P.E.  .012  (Pearson’s  product-moment  formula).  Twenty  trials, 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


305 


then,  give  just  as  reliable  a  score  as  twenty-five.  Twenty  trials 
may  therefore  be  adopted  as  the  standard  method  of  procedure. 
Twenty  trials  would  obviously  be  impracticable  with  a  graphic 
recording  method,  but  with  a  counter  which  is  thoroughly  re¬ 
liable,  they  can  be  quickly  and  easily  taken. 


Directions  for  giving  the  test 

To  insure  uniformity  of  procedure  in  the  use  of  this  as  a 
standard  test,  the  following  directions  to  the  experimenter  have 
been  formulated : 

Start  the  metronome  and  say  “Ready”  when  the  wire  enters  the  mercury 
cup  and  say  “Go”  when  the  contact  is  open,  at  the  same  time  throwing  the 
key  to  the  left.  The  tapping  will  then  begin  while  the  circuit  is  broken  in 
the  metronome,  but  the  record  will  not  begin  before  the  metronome  circuit 
is  closed,  approximately  half  a  second  later.  During  the  succeeding  second, 
when  the  wire  is  in  the  mercury,  press  the  key  down,  thus  shunting  the  cir¬ 
cuit  from  the  metronome.  On  the  fifth  second,  when  the  wire  is  again  in  the 
mercury,  raise  the  key,  thus  breaking  the  shunt,  and  permit  the  metronome 
contact  to  determine  the  end  of  the  period.  During  this  break  in  the  metro¬ 
nome  circuit  call  “Stop”  and  throw  the  key  to  the  right. 

Seat  the  observer  facing  the  key.  Adjust  the  stool  to  his  height  so  that 
the  forearm  is  in  a  horizontal  position.  The  hand  not  in  use  should  grasp 
the  table.  Direct  him  to  plant  both  feet  firmly  on  the  floor  and  lean  slightly 
forward  with  the  entire  body  in  an  alert  and  tense  position,  ready  for  action. 
Drill  the  observer  on  the  importance  of  being  in  the  same  attitude  as  in 
starting  for  a  race — a  race  of  five  seconds. 

Then  engage  in  preliminary  practice  so  that  the  observer  may  become 
familiar  with  the  working  of  the  key.  Demonstrate  the  thumb  and  finger 
method  of  holding  the  key.  Correct  any  wrong  procedure,  such  as  excessive 
arm  movements,  or  attempts  at  trembling.  This  practice  tapping  should 
serve  also  as  a  warming  up  process  in  which  the  observer  gets  set  for  the 
heat.  The  amount  of  this  corrective  preliminary  work  should  vary  with 
the  need  of  the  individual.  One  individual  may  be  nervous  and  needs  to 
be  quieted  down.  Another  may  be  lethargic  and  needs  to  be  spurred.  Em¬ 
phasize  speed  only ;  not  regularity.  Do  not  start  the  recording  until  you  are 
assured  that  the  best  form  and  the  best  effort  are  secured  for  speed.  If 
insuperable  difficulties  appear  in  this  preliminary  practice,  make  full  and 
detailed  note  of  these  for  the  interpretation  of  the  record. 

At  the  end  of  each  trial  announce  the  result,  and  challenge  the  observer  to 
excel  his  record.  Remind  him  of  the  importance  of  focusing  all  his  effort 
into  the  short  period  of  five  seconds.  Allow  a  few  moments  between  trials 
and  see  that  the  observer  relaxes  completely.  If  there  occur  noticeable 
breaks  in  the  tapping  of  more  than  twice  the  duration  of  a  single  tap,  throw 
out  that  record  before  reading  what  the  record  is,  and  give  him  another  trial. 
Record  results  for  twenty  trials. 

To  help  get  the  maximum  effort  from  the  observer  the  object  of  the 
test  is  briefly  explained;  then  the  “Charge”  is  given,  and  finally  praise  of  his 
efforts  and  a  word  of  encouragement  after  each  trial. 

Just  before  the  preliminary  trials  and  again  before  the  first  recorded  trial, 
give  this  charge :  “Remember  it  is  speed  that  counts.  Let  nothing  interrupt 
you  until  I  call  ‘Stop.’  Keep  your  eyes  on  the  key.  Do  your  utmost.  Tap 
as  fast  as  you  possibly  can.” 


306 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


If  the  charge  does  not  seem  to  be  effective,  use  any  device  to  stimulate  the 
observer  or  quiet  him,  as  the  case  may  demand.  The  test  is  made  under  the 
supposition  that  the  experimenter  has  been  successful  in  securing  the  ob¬ 
server’s  very  best  effort. 

Sources  of  error  in  tapping.  A  sudden  muscular  rigidity  in 
the  arm,  a  sort  of  momentary  paralysis  in  which  the  arm  moves 
neither  up  nor  down,  occasionally  interrupts  the  tapping.  These 
‘'breaks”  can  often  be  avoided  by  having  the  observer  tap  less 
forcefully  and  with  a  less  tense  position  of  the  arm.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  have  attempts  at  increased  speed  result  in  merely 
increased  force.  Too  much  muscular  effort  in  tapping  interferes 
with  the  subject's  maximum  speed. 

Smith  (39)  called  attention  to  “tremor”  and  considered  its 
rate  as  different  from  the  rapidity  of  voluntary  movement.  The 
observer  should  be  shown  that  distinct  up  and  down  movements 
of  the  forearm  are  necessary. 

The  following  movements  call  other  joints  into  play  and  slow 
down  the  rate :  shoulder  joint  movement  of  the  full  arm,  a  finger 
movement,  a  hand  and  wrist  movement  of  large  amplitude  while 
the  fingers  still  hold  the  key,  and  side  movements  of  the  hand. 
They  are  all  examples  of  wrong  procedure  which  must  be  cor¬ 
rected. 

Lifting  the  hand  high  from  the  key  between  taps  is  but  another 
example  of  wrong  procedure.  Another  is  the  attempt  to  alter¬ 
nate  the  tapping  between  the  pointer  and  middle  fingers,  as  in 
the  trilling  movement  on  the  piano,  which  interferes. 

More  central,  subjective  factors  sometimes  lessen  the  reliability 
of  the  results :  unfamiliarity  with  key,  a  hesistancy  in  bending 
all  effort  to  show  a  maximum  speed,  a  failure  to  assume  an  alert, 
tense  position  of  the  body;  wandering  of  attention  (most  notice¬ 
able  in  children)  from  the  tapping  to  the  clicking  electrical 
counter;  and  the  tendency  of  those  experienced  in  telegraphy  to 
want  to  send  symbols,  etc.  Proper  cautioning  and  tact  are  us¬ 
ually  effective  in  overcoming  these  difficulties. 

The  effect  of  practice  on  the  tapping  rate.  Practice  in  tapping 
resulted  in  increased  regularity  of  performance  rather  than  in 
increased  speed  according  to  Johnson  (23)  and  Raif  (35). 
Dresslar  (14)  thought  that  practice  had  no  effect  after  the  third 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


307 


day  but  Wells  (48)  stated  that  the  practice  curve  was  very 
gradual  in  ascent  and  fluctuated  somewhat  from  day  to  day. 
Johnson  (23),  after  experimenting  with  the  toe  tap,  asserted  that 
the  effect  of  practice  is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  undeveloped 
state  of  the  muscles.  Davis  (13)  concluded  that  the  results  of 
practice  were  central  rather  than  peripheral,  the  central  factors 
being  a  development  of  motor  centers  and  an  increased  will  power 
and  concentration  of  attention  during  the  tapping  period. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  practice  on  ability  in  this  test,  six 
normal  adults  were  chosen  to  repeat  the  test  daily,  under  uniform 
conditions  for  a  period  of  twenty  days. 


1  '3  6  7  9  11  13  15  17  19 


Fig.  2.  Twenty  day  practice  experiment,  six  subjects:  numbers  at  bottom, 
successive  days;  numbers  at  left,  average  number  of  taps  in  five  seconds. 

The  results  of  this  practice  series  are  shown  in  Figure  2.  The 
mean  variation  is  so  constant  for  all  observers  that  there  is  no 
object  in  representing  it  in  the  graph.  The  amount  of  gain  by 
practice  is  very  small.  The  curve  is  quite  different  from  the 
learning  curve  in  a  more  complex  process.  Three  observers 
showed  improvement,  three  did  not;  where  gain  was  found,  it 
was  due  to  improved  technique,  less  perversion  of  procedure  in 
attempted  trembling,  etc.  Where  improvement  did  not  occur, 
the  observers  developed  good  technique  the  first  day,  were  quite 
regular  in  their  performance  and  put  forth  their  maximum 
effort. 

The  experiment  bears  out  the  statement  of  Binet  and  Courtier 
(5)  to  the  effect  that  low  variability  is  a  sign  that  the  effect  of 
practice  has  already  been  accomplished,  and  there  is  no  chance 
for  much  further  improvement.  Of  two  persons  having  the 
same  average  score,  the  one  with  the  high  variability  has  better 
chance  for  improvement. 


308 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


Aside  from  the  question  of  improvement,  other  items  relevant 
to  rapidity  of  performance  were  noted.  Mental  work  imme¬ 
diately  preceding  the  test  resulted  in  increased  speed,  as  men¬ 
tioned  by  Dresslar  (14).  Nervous  irritation  resulted  in  faster 
work;  likewise  irritability  due  to  a  cold.  Sitting  in  a  cold  room 
caused  a  slowing  up  or  a  longer  preliminary  practice  period  to 
reach  normal  performance.  More  than  the  usual  amount  of 
sleep  resulted  in  muscular  and  nervous  lethargy  and  a  retarda¬ 
tion. 

The  effect  of  practice  is  very  important  in  considering  just 
what  the  test  measures.  If  the  ability  required  in  the  test  is 
fundamental  rather  than  accessory,  learning  will  play  a  very 
small  part  and  there  will  be  very  little  improvement  with  practice. 
And  this  is  seemingly  just  what  the  practice  experiment  showed. 
No  improvement  would  indicate  that  a  basic  motor  capacity  is 
being  tested. 

Rates  and  norms.  The  average  rate  is  of  course  conditioned 
in  large  part  by  the  duration  of  the  tapping  and  the  methods  of 
procedure.  When  speed  of  performance  is  the  one  object  in 
view,  the  average  rates  have  been  recorded  as  follows :  Dresslar 
(14),  8.5  taps  per  second;  Franz  (16),  8  per  second,  Wells  (48) 
found  an  average  of  35.3  taps  for  the  first  five  seconds  of  his 
thirty  seconds'  interval.  Woodworth  (54)  placed  the  upper 
limit  at  10-11  taps  per  second;  Bryan  (10),  11  per  second  for 
a  short  interval;  and  Von  Kries  (45),  10-11  per  second  but 
designated  11-12.4  per  second  as  the  maximum  rate  of  innerva¬ 
tion.  Wells  (48)  found  that  the  fastest  and  slowest  subjects 
varied  in  the  ratio  of  about  3.2. 

Wells  (48)  noted  that  the  m.v.  was  usually  1%  to  3%  of  the 
rate  and  Bryan  (10)  stated  that  the  m.v.  was  rarely  more  than 
one  tap  per  second.  Fatigue  as  a  factor  in  variability  began 
to  show  after  ten  or  fifteen  seconds'  work,  according  to  Bryan 
(10).  As  to  regularity,  Bliss  (8)  found  that  the  time  interval 
between  taps  was  constantly  varying,  it  was  seldom  exactly  the 
same  for  two  successive  taps.  This  time  variation  within  the 
series  was  quite  evident  in  the  present  study’s  experimentation  on 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


309 


University  sophomores.  The  time  of  day  was  accompanied  by 
variations  in  rapidity;  that  afternoon  tapping  surpasses  that  of 
the  morning  was  noted  by  Dresslar  (14),  Hollingworth  (21), 
Marsh  (31),  and  Stecher  (41).  Dresslar  (14)  placed  the 
maximum  at  4  p.  m.  but  according  to  Gilbert  (17)  the  later 
periods  of  the  evening  were  the  most  rapid  of  all. 

In  the  autumn  of  1917  164  sophomores  were  tested.  Three 
five-second  trials  for  each  individual  were  graphically  recorded. 
The  figures  shows  median  time  per  tap  (sec.)  .116,  m.v.  .012; 
mean  .119,  m.v.,  .012.  The  distribution  is  given  in  Table  I 
on  the  basis  of  which  percentile  norms  are  given  in  Table  II. 


TABLE  I.  Distribution  of  tapping  time 


Scale  in 

hundredths  of  a 
second  per  tap 

Men 

No. 

% 

8.0-  8.4 

1 

9 

8.5-  8.9 

2 

1.8 

9.0-  9.4 

2 

1.8 

9-5-  9-9 

5 

4-7 

10.0-10.4 

13 

12.2 

10.5-10.9 

14 

13.2 

11.0-11.4 

18 

16.9 

11.5-11.9 

21 

19.8 

12.0-12.4 

14 

13.2 

12.5-12.9 

6 

5-6 

13-0-134 

2 

1.8 

I3-5-I3-9 

3 

2.8 

14.0-14.4 

2 

1.8 

I4.5-I4.9 

2 

1.8 

I5.0-I54 

0 

.0 

I5-5-I5.9 

0 

.0 

16.0-16.4 

0 

.0 

17.0 

0 

.0 

23.0 

1 

•9 

Totals 

106 

99.2 

Women 

Total 

No. 

% 

No. 

% 

0 

.0 

1 

.6 

0 

.0 

2 

1.2 

0 

.0 

2 

1.2 

0 

.0 

5 

3-0 

3 

5-i 

16 

9-7 

6 

10.3 

20 

12.2 

9 

15-4 

27 

16.4 

3 

5-i 

24 

14.6 

9 

154 

23 

14.0 

5 

8.6 

11 

6.7 

5 

8.6 

7 

4.2 

4 

6.9 

7 

4.2 

4 

6.9 

6 

3-6 

4 

6.9 

6 

3-6 

2 

3-4 

2 

1.2 

I 

1-7 

1 

.6 

2 

3-4 

2 

1.2 

I 

i-7 

1 

.6 

0 

.0 

1 

.6 

58 

99-4 

164 

99.4 

Slow  Pest 

Fig.  3.  Speed  in  tapping :  dotted  line,  women ;  solid  line,  men :  numbers  at 
bottom,  scale  in  hundredths  of  a  second  per  tap;  numbers  at  left,  per  cent 
of  cases. 


3io 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


TABLE  II.  Percentile  ranks  for  adults 


(Derived  from  164  cases,  sophomores  in  State  University  of  Iowa) 
%  Time  Taps  Taps  in 

Rank  per  tap  per  sec.  5 sec- 


100 

95 

90 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 


08^ 

.  .  .  .  12.0  . 

_  60.0 

. 

007 

.  .  .  .  10. 1  . 

_  51.5 

,uy/  ..... 

102 

.  .  .  .  9.8  . 

_  49.0 

.104  . 

_  9.6  . 

_  48.0 

.106  . 

•  • .  •  94  . 

. . . .  47-0 

.IO8  . 

•  •  •  •  9-3  . 

. . . .  46.5 

Ill 

. . . .  0.0  . 

. . . .  45.0 

T  T  2  . 

....  8.9  . 

•  • . .  44  5 

•113  . 

....  8.8  . 

. . . .  44-0 

.114  . 

....  8.7  . 

• .  •  •  43-5 

.Il6  . 

....  8.6  . 

. . . .  43-0 

.Il8  . 

....  8.4  . 

_  42.0 

.120  . 

....  8.3  . 

. . . .  414 

T2T  . 

....  8.2  . 

. . . .  41.0 

U24  . 

....  8.0  . 

.126  . 

•  ••■  7-9  . 

• . . .  39-5 

.130  . 

....  7-6  . 

-  38.0 

•137  . 

....  7-29 . 

.  •  • .  36.5 

•143  . 

....  6.99 . 

. . . .  35-0 

.148  . 

....  6.7  . 

.  .  .  .  ^2.^ 

•  A  •  •  •  •  • 

.238  . 

....  4-2  . 

_  21.0 

Age  and  sex  differences. 

The  tapping  rate  increases  steadily  between  the  ages  of  6  and 
19.  This  fact  was  noted  by  Gilbert  (18),  Bolton  (9),  Bryan 
(10),  Smedley  (38),  and  Bickersteth  (4).  Each  writer,  how¬ 
ever,  offered  certain  limitations.  Bolton  (9)  stated  that  age 
differences  of  8  and  9  year  old  children  were  less  than  individual 
differences  of  those  ages;  also  that  increase  of  motor  power  was 
less  marked  with  mentally  inferior  children.  Bryan  (10)  esti¬ 
mated  that  the  rate  of  the  child  of  6  was  two  thirds  the  rate  of 
the  youth  of  16.  According  to  Gilbert  (18)  and  Smedley  (38), 
the  increase  of  speed  with  age  had  one  marked  exception,  at  ages 
13  to  14  there  occurred  a  slight  but  noticeable  falling  off.  Gil¬ 
bert  (18)  attributed  this  to  puberty.  Bickersteth  (4)  noticed 
a  slight  falling  off  at  age  15.  Gilbert’s  (18)  table  of  norms  for 
ages  6  to  19  is  typical  of  experimentation  of  this  kind  and  is 
reproduced  for  purpose  of  comparison  with  results  of  the  present 
study,  in  which  the  children  of  the  University  Elementary  School 
were  tested.  About  one  hundred  and  thirty  children  of  Grades 
I  to  VI  inclusive  were  given  the  tapping  test  under  standard 
conditions. 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


3ii 


TABLE  III.  Age  and  Sex  Norms 


Age  Taps 

5 

6 

7 

8 


9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

1 7 

18 

19 


22.3 
24-5 
26.0 
26.7 

26.2 
28.0 
29-3 
29.5 

29.4 

3i-3 

32.2 

33- 8 

34- 3 


Gilbert 

M.V. 

2.2 
2.7 
2-5 

2- 5 

3- 6 
3-i 
2.2 
2.7 

2.6 

2.7 
3-1 
3-0 

2.4 


GIRLS 

Ream 

Taps  M.V. 


Gilbert 


BOYS 


Ream 


16.6 
20.3 

22.7 
25.0 
28.0 

28.7 


1.2 

1.3 
•7 
•7 
•9 

1.0 


Taps 

22.1 
233 
25.0 

27.1 

28.3 

28.1 

30.1 
3  i.i 

32.4 

34-0 

34-0 

344 

36.0 


M.V. 

2.1 
2.7 
2.4 
2.4 
2.6 

2.2 
2.9 

3-8 
2.9 
2.6 
3-1 
2.2 
3-i 


Taps 

18.8 

20.8 
22.7 

27.1 

28.2 

31. 1 


M.V. 

1.1 
1.0 

1.2 
.8 
.8 

1.2 


I  II  III  IV  V  VI 

Fig.  4.  Variation  in  tapping  with  grade:  solid  line,  boys;  dotted  line,  girls: 
Roman  numerals,  school  grade ;  Arabic  numerals,  numbers  of  taps  in  k  seconds 
(Ream,  Table  III). 


A  very  clear  verification  is  found  in  these  records  of  the  in¬ 
crease  in  tapping  rate  with  age  and  physical  growth.  With  the 
exception  of  ages  6  and  7  the  rates  are  noticeably  faster  than 
Gilbert’s  (18),  and  on  the  whole,  the  mean  variations  are  much 
smaller. 

As  regards  sex  differences  investigators  are  practically  un¬ 
animous  in  the  conclusion  that  men  are  faster  than  women  and 
that  boys  excel  girls.  Cattell  (12),  Thompson  (43),  Smedley 
(38),  Bryan  (10),  and  Bagley  (2)  are  examples.  Bolton  (9) 
found  that  girls  surpass  boys  at  the  ages  of  8  and  9,  Gilbert  (18) 
from  age  6  to  age  8  inclusive,  and  Bryan  (10)  noted  that  girls 
excelled  at  age  13,  but  were  inferior  in  all  other  cases. 


312 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


Burt  and  Moore's  (n)  records  showed  that  6 8.8%  of  the 
boys  exceeded  the  median  score  of  the  girls;  Thompson  (43) 
found  88%  of  men  faster  than  the  median  for  women;  and  with 
Hollingworth  and  Poffenberger  (22),  the  tapping  test  ranked 
highest,  71%,  in  number  of  men  reaching  and  exceeding  the 
median  performance  of  women.  These  findings  were  corro¬ 
borated  in  the  present  investigation  on  adults.  Sex  and  age 
differences  are  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  4,  and  Fig.  5. 

40 
35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

5  6  7  8  9  10 

Fig.  5.  Same  data  as  in  Fig.  4,  expressed  for  age  instead  of  grade. 

Wells  (49)  considered  women  less  variable  than  men  when  he 
prolonged  the  tapping  test  into  a  fatigue  test  but  this  conclusion 
was  not  borne  out  in  the  present  study.  The  women  showed 
larger  mean  variations  on  every  trial  than  the  men.  Ffowever, 
the  initial  large  variation  of  the  women  was  materially  reduced 
on  later  trials.  A  number  of  the  women  seemed  to  show  an 
initial  hesitancy  in  beginning  a  test  of  motor  ability. 

Relevant  correlations. 

A  great  many  investigators  have  been  anxious  to  determine  the 
relationship  between  motor  and  mental  capacities.  The  tapping 
test,  as  one  of  the  simplest  motor  tests,  has  been  frequently 
correlated  with  mental  tests.  Results  and  conclusions  are  far 
from  unanimous.  The  correlation  with  mental  abilitv  was  found 

J 

to  be  positive  by  Bolton  (9),  Smedley  (38)  and  Kirkpatrick 
(26).  Binet  and  Vaschide  (6)  reported  it  positive  with  children 
of  12  years  and  negative  between  the  ages  of  16  and  20.  Gil- 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


313 


bert  (18)  found  bright  children  generally  better  in  tapping. 
Dresslar  (14)  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  rate  of  voluntary 
movements  was  something  of  an  index  to  central  nervous  activity. 
Burt  (11)  reported  correlations  with  intelligence  of  .44  at  one 
school  and  .28  at  another  school.  Abelson  ( 1 )  having  tested 
188  girls  found  marked  correlations  with  interpretation  of  pic¬ 
tures,  crossing  out  rings,  memory  for  names  of  objects,  and 
memory  for  commissions.  Stecher  (41)  reported  interesting 
correlations  with  mental  multiplication  r,  .24;  with  aiming  r,  .31 ; 
with  hand  steadiness  r,  .07;  with  arm  steadiness  r,  .03;  and  with 
eyelid  tremor  r,  .21. 

Other  writers,  however,  were  just  as  insistent  that  perform¬ 
ance  in  tapping  bore  no  relation  whatever  to  mental  brightness. 
Among  these  were  English  (15),  Gilbert  (18),  and  Smith  (39). 
Three  out  of  four  highest  scores,  recorded  by  Smith  were  made 
by  demented  epileptics.  Bagley  (2)  and  Bickersteth  (4)  even 
maintained  that  the  relation  was  inverse  between  mental  and 
motor  ability.  From  the  evidence  at  hand,  an  assertion  of 
positive  relation  between  the  two  types  of  performance  is  cer¬ 
tainly  unwarranted;  what  is  evident,  however,  is  the  need  for 
more  careful  investigation  along  this  line.  Burt  (n)  made  an 
interpretation  as  follows:  “So  far  as  motor  rapidity  is  the 
function  of  temporary  ‘facilitation’  of  the  paths  of  neural  dis¬ 
charge,  it  appears  also  to  be  a  function  of  intelligence;  while  so 
far  as  it  is  a  function  of  permanent  ‘canalization’  of  those  paths, 
it  is  but  slightly  or  inversely  related  to  intelligence." 

Much  more  interesting  is  the  question  of  a  relation  between 
tapping  rate  and  proficiency  in  certain  occupations.  Link  (29) 
tested  employees  of  the  Winchester  Arms  Company.  In  the 
case  of  shell  inspectors,  tapping  had  the  smallest  correlation  of 
any  of  his  seven  tests,  r,  .135,  P.E.  .071.  In  this  kind  of 
work,  keen  eyesight  was  the  first  essential.  But  in  the  case  of 
gaugers,  tapping  had  the  highest  correlation,  r,  .516,  P.E.  .071. 
In  this  work  speed  of  movement  was  most  important.  Holling- 
worth  and  Poffenberger  (22)  found  a  correlation  of  .34  be¬ 
tween  tapping  rate  and  proficiency  in  hand  sewing.  As  regards 


314 


MERRILL  /.  REAM 


piano  playing,  Raif  (35)  maintained  that  a  high  tapping  rate 
was  not  necessary  in  order  to  become  an  artist  in  piano;  for,  he 
said,  the  fingers  alternate  in  their  movements,  and  it  is  never 
necessary  to  repeat  any  movement  more  times  per  second  than 
the  normal  rate  in  tapping.  However  it  can  be  contended  that 
tapping  as  one  measure  of  an  individual’s  total  motor  set  and 
equipment,  may  have  a  bearing  on  performance  in  music. 

In  the  efficiency  studies,  Benedict,  Miles,  Roth  and  Smith  (3) 
reported  a  decrease  in  rate  with  restricted  diet  and  Hollingsworth 
(20)  a  decrease  with  alcoholic  beverages,  but  the  same  writer 
reported  that  the  use  of  caffein  had  a  stimulating  effect  in  the 
tapping  test. 

The  correlation  between  speed  score  and  regularity  score, 
(M.V.,  164  cases)  proved  to  be  r,  .32,  P.E.  .05,  showing  that 
a  positive  correlation  is  present,  but  it  is  not  marked.  The  four 
combinations  of  speed  and  regularity  were  found:  fast  and 
regular,  fast  and  irregular,  slow  and  regular,  and  slow  and  ir¬ 
regular.  For  the  most  part,  however,  the  fast  tappers  were  more 
likely  to  be  regular  and  the  slow  tappers  irregular. 

The  correlation  between  speed  in  tapping  and  simple  reaction 
time  (157  cases)  was  r,  .21  P.E.  .05.  There  was  a  positive 
correlation  present  but  quite  small,  barely  four  times  the  prob¬ 
able  error. 

Factors  conditioning  rapidity  of  performance  in  tapping. 

A  number  of  writers  have  suggested  that  individual  differences 
in  rate  are  conditioned  in  a  general  way  by  fundamental  neural 
factors.  Wells  (48)  stated  that  physiologically  the  maximum 
rate  is  limited  by  the  refractory  phase  of  the  synapses  in  the 
motor  pathways.  In  consideration  of  motor  development  Bolton 
(9)  similarly  explained  that  it  is  based  upon  growth  of  interre¬ 
lation  between  nerve  elements.  Arrest  of  growth  is  due  to 
suspension  in  growth  of  associative  connections.  Von  Kries 
(45)  and  Kirkpatrick  (25)  supported  the  view  concerning  the 
neural  character  of  the  limit  placed  upon  the  maximum  rate. 
In  addition  to  this  important  factor,  Whipple  (51)  appended 
another  condition,  viz.,  the  ability  to  coordinate  voluntary  move- 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


3i5 


ment.  Evidently  a  certain  amount  of  simple  coordination  is 
required  in  tapping.  This  second  factor  might  help  to  explain 
Wells'  (48)  statement  that  although  nervous  temperaments  were 
usually  fast,  some  are  below  the  average  rate.  He  also  stated 
that  a  fast  rate  is  not  always  related  to  general  quickness.  Obvi¬ 
ously  general  motor  quickness  is  dependent  also  on  power  of 
coordination,  temperament,  muscular  habits,  training  and  en¬ 
vironment.  But  the  striking  individual  differences  in  perform¬ 
ance  can  not  be  wholly  explained  by  these  contributing  factors. 
Every  individual  has  his  own  motor  set-up,  one  is  geared  slow 
and  another  is  geared  fast.  The  chief  factor  in  the  different 
tapping  rates  which  result  is  probably  a  physiological  openness 
of  nerve  paths  which  is  inherited.  It  enables  an  individual  to 
maintain  his  approximate  percentile  standing  in  motility  among 
individuals  of  his  own  age  and  development  if  the  contributing 
factors  mentioned  above  are  constant. 

To  what  extent  ability  in  tapping  is  an  inherited  capacity  no 
writer  has  stated.  The  extended  practice  experiment  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  study  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  test  measures  fundamental, 
basic  abilities  since  improvement  was  on  the  whole,  conspicuously 
lacking.  The  inference  is  that  the  motive  neural  set,  undoubtedly 
an  important  condition  of  such  basic  ability,  is  inherited.  There 
are  other  conditions,  however,  which  are  surely  subject  to  train¬ 
ing.  Coordination  of  movement,  regularity  and  smoothness  of 
performance,  illustrated  by  training  in  piano,  are  mentioned  by 
Binet  and  Courtier  (5)  as  improved  by  practice.  Raif  (35) 
likewise,  emphasized  the  improvability  of  coordination  of  move¬ 
ment.  Davis  (13)  noted  that  such  results  of  practice  as  ap¬ 
peared,  were  central  rather  than  peripheral,  viz.,  (1)  those 
dependent  on  the  development  of  motor  centers,  that  is,  their 
improvement  through  exercise;  and  (2)  those  dependent  on  the 
development  of  psychical  factors,  attention  and  will  power. 

Subjective  factors  conditioning  rate  and  regularity  of 

performance. 

Johnson  (23)  enumerated  several  subjective  factors  which 
affected  individual  differences  in  rate:  physical  condition, 


3i  6 


MERRILL  J.  REAM 


rapidity  of  heart  beat,  and  body  temperature,  power  of  fixation 
of  attention,  and  influence  of  emulation.  Wells  (48)  noted  in¬ 
creases  with  improvement  of  physical  condition.  However,  on 
numerous  occasions  in  the  present  study,  the  subject's  estimate 
of  his  physical  condition  was  no  indication  at  all  of  the  character 
or  rate  of  his  performance.  Davis  (13)  also  belittled  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  general  physical  tone.  But  on  the  other  hand,  mental 
factors,  as  interest,  effort,  nervousness,  or  irritability  resulted 
in  increased  rate.  Stecher  (41)  said  that  tapping  was  peculiarly 
subject  to  an  end  spurt  because  of  interest,  rivalry,  etc.  Marsh 
(31)  said  in  this  connection:  “Rapidity  of  tapping  as  it  requires 
a  minimum  of  control  but  a  maximum  of  neural  excitement,  may 
be  expressive  largely  of  nervousness."  The  late  evening  produced 
the  fastest  scores ;  increased  nervousness  at  that  time  of  day  was 
suggested  as  an  explanation.  The  experimentation  of  the  present 
study  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  one  subjective  factor  of 
real  significance  is  maximum  effort.  Interest,  rivalry,  nervous¬ 
ness  are  mere  accompaniments  or  expressions  of  the  subject's 
desire  to  do  his  utmost.  For  this  reason,  the  standard  directions 
for  giving  the  test,  after  the  technique  has  been  properly  estab¬ 
lished,  put  all  stress  on  stimulating  the  subject  to  his  best  effort. 

To  recapitulate,  motor  power  is  not  a  simple  phenomenon  but 
a  complex  of  rapidity  of  control,  steadiness  and  precision  of 
movement,  strength,  endurance,  etc.  Motility  is  but  one  element 
of  motor  power,  yet  it  is  one  of  the  most  fundamental.  It  is 
stated  by  Bolton  (9)  that  the  muscles  of  the  body  form  a  grad¬ 
uated  series,  from  the  most  fundamental  to  the  most  accessory. 
And  all  experimentation  thus  far  points  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  muscles’  neural  equipment  used  in  the  motility  test  are  among 
those  earliest  developed  and  most  fundamental  in  character. 

Application  and  future  experimentation. 

In  spite  of  all  the  experimentation  to  which  the  tapping  test 
has  been  subjected,  its  use  as  a  measure  of  motility  has  only  be¬ 
gun.  The  present  study  has  gone  scarcely  further  than  the 
standardization  of  apparatus  and  method  of  giving  the  test. 
There  remains  to  be  studied  its  diagnostic  value  in  determining 


THE  TAPPING  TEST:  A  MEASURE  OF  MOTILITY 


3i7 


proficiency  in  many  lines  of  industrial  work.  This  can  be  done 
only  by  testing  persons  engaged  or  about  to  engage  in  the  specific 
line  of  industrial  work. 

The  tapping  test  may  very  possibly  be  of  value  in  all  those 
occupations  and  activities  in  which  rapidity  of  movement  is  an 
important  factor.  Telegraphy,  typewriting,  hand  sewing,  music, 
sorting,  folding,  and  packing  work  in  factories  are  but  illustra¬ 
tions  of  the  vast  array  of  human  endeavors  in  which  motility 
counts.  Motility,  as  a  basic  motor  capacity,  will  likely  become 
one  feature  of  a  motor  psycho-graph,  in  which  an  individual’s 
motor  abilities  and  weaknesses  are  graphically  represented. 

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247- 


SERIAL  ACTION  AS  A  BASIC  MEASURE  OF 

MOTOR  CAPACITY 

By  C.  Frederick  Hansen,  Ph.D. 

An  historical  resume  of  serial  action  and  related  experiments;  conditions 
affecting  the  time  and  character  of  serial  action  measurements;  apparatus  and 
method;  the  effects  of  practice  upon  performance  in  the  test  of  serial  action; 
distribution  of  the  groups  tested  according  to  speed  and  accuracy;  the  dis¬ 
tribution  of  errors  in  relation  to  the  sequence  of  stimuli;  the  relation  of 
serial  action  to  other  measures  used;  the  relation  of  serial  action  to  other 
motor  tests;  application  to  vocational  guidance  and  selection;  conclusions; 
bibliography. 

During  recent  years,  tests  and  experiments  involving  con¬ 
tinuous  reactions  after  discrimination  and  choice,  or  “serial 
action,”  have  been  making  their  appearance  in  various  garbs  and 
for  varying  purposes.  These  developments  have  uniformly  testi¬ 
fied  to  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  psychologist  to  reproduce,  in 
dealing  with  his  laboratory  problem,  the  actual  conditions  of 
ordinary  daily  motor  activities  more  closely  than  occurs  in  the 
traditional  forms  of  reaction  time  experimentation. 

These  newer  measures  of  motor  activities  recognize  the  essen¬ 
tially  fluid  character  of  stimuli  and  reactions — their  flux  and 
flow  within  mutually  interdependent  continuous  series.  The 
stimulus  constantly  changes  its  nature  and  appeal,  as  the  reaction 
process  occurs;  and  the  reactions,  in  turn,  are  always  being  ad¬ 
justed  to  meet  new  conditions  appearing  in  the  stimuli. 

Continuous  discriminative  reactions  thus  have  their  counter¬ 
parts  even  in  the  early  motor  performances  of  the  child,  and 
they  play  an  essential  role  in  such  simple  acts  as  walking,  manipu¬ 
lating  objects,  writing,  and  in  fact,  most  of  the  responses  of  the 
individual  to  the  world  of  things.  They  can  be  regarded  as 
simple  and  basic  indices  of  motor  capacity,  describing  the  motor 
efficiency  of  an  individual  with  faithfulness  limited  only  by  the 
imperfect  degree  of  standardization  conditioning  the  measure. 
In  the  diagnosis,  therefore,  of  motor  weaknesses  or  incompetence, 
the  performance  of  a  subject  in  serial  action  may  serve  as  evidence 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


321 


of  his  ability  to  deal  in  a  formal  fashion  with  common  situations 
demanding  motor  adjustments. 

Furthermore,  proficiency  in  serial  action  is  a  basic  factor  in 
the  development  of  skill  in  many  vocational  and  avocational  pur¬ 
suits,  such  as  those  of  the  musician,  the  stenographer,  the  teleg¬ 
rapher,  or  certain  factory  inspectors.  All  organized  series  of 
activities  in  which  there  occurs  a  continuous  interplay  of  suc¬ 
cessive  stimuli  and  corresponding  reactions  involve  this  type  of 
motor  capacity.  And  success  in  these  complex  achievements  will 
be  conditioned  fundamentally  by  the  underlying  ability  of  the 
individual  in  this  sensorimotor  performance. 

It  is  possible,  therefore,  that  the  psychologist  can  so  strip  the 
reaction  process  of  its  secondary  features,  and  so  control  its 
variables,  both  subjective  and  objective,  that  he  can  secure,  by 
means  of  a  test  of  serial  action,  a  useful  index  of  motor  capacity. 
For  he  can  postulate  that  the  individual  showing  superior  ability 
in  this  measurement,  will,  provided  other  factors  do  not  inter¬ 
pose,  achieve  success  in  these  various  complicated  attainments; 
while  the  subject  of  poor  achievement  in  this  test  will  probably 
be  disqualified  for  attaining  success  in  those  same  activities. 

The  purpose  of  the  present  investigation,  therefore,  is,  first, 
to  secure  a  simple  and  practical  device  for  measuring  speed  and 
accuracy  in  serial  action;  second,  to  standardize  thoroughly  the 
variables  in  the  procedure,  thus  leading  to  the  gathering  of  re¬ 
liable  data;  and,  third,  to  measure  the  performance,  in  this  test, 
of  certain  representative  groups  of  persons.  We  may  then  be  in 
a  position  to  judge  whether  a  test  of  this  character  possesses  any 
utility  for  meeting  certain  problems  of  a  clinical,  vocational  or 
industrial  nature,  wherein  such  sensorimotor  capacities  are  in¬ 
volved. 

For  the  apparatus  used  in  the  following  tests,  a  simple  com¬ 
mutator,  serviceable  in  conjunction  with  many  kinds  of  visual 
and  auditory  stimuli,  has  been  attached  to  an  ordinary  typewriter, 
the  keys  of  which  were  manipulated  by  the  subject.  In  the  pro¬ 
cedure,  as  many  of  the  numerous  variables  as  possible  were 
eliminated  or  at  least  considered,  with  an  eye,  however,  constantly 


322 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


to  practicability  more  than  to  laboratory  infallibility.  Four 
groups  of  subjects  have  been  tested  with  this  device:  first,  a 
group  of  152  university  sophomores  who  at  the  same  time  were 
taking  seven  other  tests  of  motor  capacities;  second,  173  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Army  Vocational  School,  who  were  beginning  the 
army  training  for  radio-telegraphers;  third,  90  students  in  the 
schools  of  music  at  Northwestern  and  Iowa  Universities;  and 
fourth,  237  students  in  stenographic  and  commercial  courses  in 
Des  Moines  and  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa.  An  effort  is  made,  in  each 
case,  to  discover  the  closeness  of  relationship  between  per¬ 
formance  in  the  test  and  achievement  in  the  vocational  pursuits 
involved,  by  means  of  practical  criteria. 

An  Historical  Resume  of  Serial  Action 
and  Related  Experiments 

The  first  experiments  to  measure  the  speed  and  accuracy  of 
serial  action  were  the  card-sorting  tests  used  by  Bergstrom  in 
1893  and  by  Jastrow  in  1897.  The  former  (8,  p.  356)  intro¬ 
duced  two  methods  of  sorting  a  pack  of  cards  into  three  piles, 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  interference  in  practice.  The  latter 
(40)  recognized  in  card-sorting  a  test  of  wide  applicability.  He 
devised  a  box  containing  eight  compartments,  in  two  rows  of 
four  each.  A  small  set  of  twenty-four  cards,  or  a  larger  of 
forty-eight  cards,  designed,  sized  and  marked  to  facilitate  speedy 
manipulation,  was  used  for  distribution  into  the  correspondingly 
designated  boxes.  The  symbols  used  for  the  classification  con¬ 
sisted  variously  of  eight  numbers,  letters  of  the  alphabet,  geo¬ 
metrical  forms,  and  other  designs.  The  subject  held  the  cards, 
backs  up,  in  his  left  hand,  and  distributed  them  while  the  ex¬ 
perimenter  gauged  the  time  for  the  total  performance  with  a 
stop  watch.  This  type  of  test,  with  numerous  variations  in  de¬ 
tails,  has  been  used  by  many  later  investigators,  such  as  Bagley 
(4  and  5),  Culler  (22),  Woolley  and  Fischer  (82),  Thompson 
(69),  Whitley  (76),  Henmon  (34),  Link  (46  and  47),  Burt 
and  Moore  (14),  Calfee  (15),  Cornell  (21),  English  (28), 
Woodrow  (79),  and  Weidensall  (72).  This  form  of  serial 
action  test  has  thus  been  extensively  employed  for  many  ex¬ 
perimental,  clinical  and  industrial  purposes. 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


323 


Laboratory  apparatus  for  the  automatic  production  of  stimuli 
in  series  and  the  recording  of  serial  reactions  first  appeared  in 
the  “psychergograph”  devised  in  1902  by  Seashore  (62),  for 
“measuring  mental  work.”  This  device  consisted  of  a  disc  which 
revolved  a  distance  of  one  one-hundredth  of  its  circumference 
whenever  any  one  of  four  reaction  keys  was  struck,  thus  expos¬ 
ing  singly  through  a  small  aperture  in  the  screen  above  the 
disc,  a  series  of  one  hundred  visual  symbols.  Four  kinds  of 
stimuli,  distributed  in  chance  order,  made  up  these  symbols ;  and 
four  fingers  (the  index  and  middle  fingers  of  each  hand)  were 
associated  with  the  respective  stimuli.  A  multiple  recorder  for 
registering  the  time  and  the  character  of  each  reaction  was  at¬ 
tached.  Seashore’s  aim  was  “to  devise  means  by  which  it  shall 
be  possible  ( 1 )  to  call  forth  a  relatively  simple  and  definite  com¬ 
plex  of  mental  activity;  (2)  to  repeat  the  same  for  any  desired 
length  of  time  without  interruption;  and  (3)  to  measure  (a) 
the  amount  of  work  done,  (b)  the  time  taken,  (c)  the  quality 
of  the  work,  and  (d)  fluctuations  in  speed.”  The  subject  faced 
the  following  simple  problem :  “Given,  one  of  four  known 
signals,  to  recognize  it  and  make  the  corresponding  one  of  four 
simple  responses.”  Following  this  method,  Florence  E.  Brown 
in  1904  made  some  experiments  on  “mental  fatigue,”  to  which 
reference  will  be  made  below. 

In  1907,  Coover  and  Angell  (20)  investigated  the  effects  of 
practice  in  one  type  of  serial  action — Jastrow’s  card-sorting — 
upon  efficiency  in  a  related  form  of  the  test,  arranged  as  fol¬ 
lows.  Attached  to  the  carriage  of  a  Blickensderfer  typewriter 
was  a  strip  of  paper  on  which  had  been  typewritten  a  series  of  the 
four  letters,  a,  t,  e,  and  n,  in  chance  arrangement.  Over  the  type¬ 
writer  was  fitted  a  screen,  with  an  aperture  of  such  diameter  as  to 
permit  only  one  letter  of  the  series  to  be  seen  at  a  time.  Since 
the  spacing  of  the  letters  in  the  series  was  the  same  as  that  of 
the  typewriter  action,  the  strip  on  the  carriage  could  be  so  ad¬ 
justed  that  for  each  stroke  of  a  key,  a  new  letter  appeared  in 
the  aperture.  The  subject  simply  placed  the  index  and  middle 
fingers  of  both  hands  on  the  keys  marked  respectively  a,  t,  e,  and 


3*4 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


n,  and  responded  to  the  successive  stimuli  by  striking  the  cor¬ 
responding  keys.  The  time  of  reaction  to  each  letter  was  re¬ 
corded  in  another  room  by  means  of  a  kymograph. 

McComas  (49)  in  1917  experimented  with  serial  responses  to 
differently  colored  lights,  obtaining  10-minute  records  from  a 
number  of  subjects.  Through  a  small  window  in  a  screen  were 
visible  four  differently  colored  electric  lights,  which  were  il¬ 
luminated  successively,  and  in  chance  order,  by  means  of  an  auto¬ 
matic  switchboard.  The  subject  manipulated  four  telegraph 
sending  keys,  which  were  so  wired  that  each  of  the  four  reaction 
movements  broke  the  circuit  by  which  one  of  the  bulbs  was 
illuminated,  and  at  the  same  time  made  a  circuit  which  actuated 
a  marker  on  the  kymograph.  Having  learned  the  proper  asso¬ 
ciations  between  the  lights  and  their  corresponding  reaction  keys, 
the  subject  proceeded  to  extinguish  the  successive  lights  as  rapidly 
as  possible  by  pressing  the  respective  keys.  A  series  of  sixty 
stimuli,  each  following  upon  the  heels  of  the  preceding  reaction, 
was  thus  presented  before  the  order  of  their  appearance  had  to 
be  repeated. 

The  serial  action  experiments  of  these  investigators,  although 
varying  widely  in  purpose,  method,  exactness,  character  and 
complexity  of  stimulus  and  response,  and  other  factors,  all  belong 
to  the  “B”  type  of  reaction  (Donders),  in  which  the  stimulus 
must  be  discriminated  and  the  movement  selected  accordingly. 
Continuous  reactions  by  the  Donders  “C”  method,  involving  the 
discrimination  of  the  stimulus  and  choice  between  movement 
and  no  movement,  have  also  been  the  subject-matter  of  experi¬ 
ments.  Dockeray  (26)  in  1915  measured  “mental  efficiency” 
over  periods  of  sixteen  minutes  each,  by  means  of  four  telegraph 
sounders,  operated  respectively  by  four  keys  under  the  control  of 
the  experimenter.  The  subject  sat  at  a  table  with  his  hand  on 
a  reaction  key.  The  experimenter,  in  beginning  the  test,  operated 
one  of  the  sounders  several  times  in  rapid  succession,  as  a  signal, 
to  designate  the  particular  sounder  to  which  the  subject  was  to 
react.  The  four  sounders  then  followed  each  other,  in  chance 
succession,  one  second  apart,  for  a  period  of  one  minute.  The 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


325 


subject,  discriminating  the  successive  sounds,  pressed  the  reaction 
key  only  in  response  to  the  sounder  which  had  been  designated. 
At  the  end  of  one  minute,  the  experimenter  signalled  with  a 
different  sounder,  to  which  the  reactions  of  the  following  min¬ 
ute  were  to  be  made.  The  omissions  and  errors  in  reacting, 
and  not  the  reaction  times,  were  recorded.  The  purpose  of 
Dockeray  in  these  tests  was  to  gauge  mental  efficiency  before 
and  after  a  period  of  physical  work. 

While  these  experiments  compose  a  unique  group  of  investi¬ 
gations,  all  involving  the  successive  presentation  of  stimuli,  one 
after  another,  each  of  which  is  disposed  of,  as  it  were,  by  a  charac¬ 
teristic  mode  of  reaction,  there  is  a  considerable  number  of 
other  tests  sharing  with  them  certain  general  processes.  Classi¬ 
fying  them  generally  under  such  heads  as  tests  of  “association,” 
“perception  and  attention,”  “discrimination,”  or  “learning 
ability,”  psychologists  have  introduced  many  “cancellation,” 
“code,”,  “substitution”  and  “motor  coordination”  tests,  which 
should  here  be  briefly  considered. 

The  “substitution”  test,  particularly  in  that  form  known  as  the 
digit-symbol  (or  symbol-digit)  test,  has  been  used  repeatedly  for 
studies  of  “the  speed  of  formation  of  new  associations. ”  The 
stimuli  for  which  the  associated  elements  or  designs  are  to  be 
substituted  have  consisted  variously  of :  20  letters  of  the  al¬ 
phabet  associated  each  with  one  of  the  other  letters  (Lough,  48, 
Kirkpatrick,  42)  ;  the  26  letters  associated  with  numbers  (Jas- 
trow;  Starch,  66;  Dearborn,  24);  symbols,  including  the  star, 
circle,  square,  cross,  and  triangle,  each  enclosing  a  digit  for  asso¬ 
ciation  (Woodworth  and  Wells,  81)  ;  nine  such  kinds  of  symbols 
similarly  associated  with  digits  (Dearborn,  24;  Healy  and  Fer- 
nald,  33;  Whipple,  74,  I  pp.  496-515;  Pyle,  60;  Pintner  and  Pat¬ 
erson,  57;  Pintner,  56;  Pintner  and  Toops,  58;  Woolley  and 
Fischer,  82 ;  Army  “Beta”  and  “Performance’’  tests)  ;  words  to 
be  coded  into  groups  of  short,  horizontal  lines,  in  accordance 
with  a  scheme  applied  to  the  alphabet  (Gray,  32;  Baldwin,  6)  ; 
the  dissected  Maltese  cross  with  the  number  1,  2,  3  and  4  placed 
in  the  sections  (Squire,  65;  Carpenter,  16)  ;  three  kinds  of  geo- 


326 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


metric  forms  given  in  two  different  colors,  associated  with  the 
the  first  six  digits  (Squire,  65;  Carpenter,  16)  ;  five  kinds  of  geo¬ 
metric  forms,  exposed  for  10  seconds,  together  with  five  digits 
(Anderson  and  Hilliard,  2) ;  and  pairs  of  multiplied  numbers  to 
be  associated  with  their  respective  products  (Thorndike,  70). 
In  all  of  these  “substitution”  tests,  the  stimuli  are  presented 
en  masse  in  company  with  their  associated  designs;  but  three 
diverse  methods  have  been  followed  with  respect  to  the  length 
of  time  during  which  the  key  or  standard  is  exposed.  Whipple, 
Woolley  and  Fischer,  and  Healy  and  Fernald  permit  the  sub¬ 
ject  to  refer  repeatedly  to  the  key  during  the  forepart  of  the 
performance,  and  at  the  end  determine  how  well  the  associations 
have  been  stamped  in,  by  removing  the  key.  Gray,  Squire,  and 
Anderson  and  Hilliard  expose  the  key  for  only  a  certain  brief 
period,  and  upon  its  removal,  the  subject  proceeds  to  make  his 
responses  from  memory,  by  logical  analysis,  or  by  whatever 
means  of  recall  he  finds  serviceable.  Most  of  the  other  investi¬ 
gators  permit  the  subject  to  utilize  the  key  throughout  the  test. 
The  first  of  these  methods  occupies  a  middle  ground,  with  re¬ 
spect  to  difficulty,  between  the  second  and  third,  which  are 
respectively  the  most  complex  and  the  simplest. 

But  even  in  its  simplest  form,  the  “substitution”  test  exceeds 
in  complexity  the  serial  action  experiment.  The  stimuli  are 
generally  more  elaborate,  the  associations  more  numerous  and 
artificial,  and  the  responses  include  the  reproduction  of  designs 
instead  of  the  simple  stroke  of  a  key.  As  a  result,  the  time  per 
reaction  is  greater,  the  “learning  curve”  is  steeper,  individual  dif¬ 
ferences  appear  more  extensively,  and  the  variability  in  records 
is  wider. 

When  the  process  of  “substitution”  is  directed  by  reference  to 
organized  memory  images  or  to  conceptual  processes,  rather  than 
by  attention  to  a  discrete  series,  either  present  to  sense  or  re¬ 
called  in  terms  of  simple  imagery,  the  test  becomes  analogous  to 
the  “Civil  War”  code  test,  used  by  Goddard  (31),  Terman  (68), 
Healy  and  Fernald  (33)  and  Chassell  (19)  in  their  classified 
mental  tests. 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


327 


In  the  less  complex  form  of  “code”  test,  the  subject  is  given  a 
very  simple  design,  with  only  a  small  number  of  associations,  as 
in  the  MacMillan  “cross-line”  tests,  used  by  Healy  and  Fernald 
(33),  and  by  Brigham  (13,  pp.  184-5),  and  similar  test 
employed  by  Wyatt  (85,  pp.  125-7).  The  responses,  as  well  as 
the  stimuli  and  the  associations,  are  simplified  by  Healy  and 
Fernald,  who  require  the  subject  merely  to  designate  the  digits 
which  are  represented  by  the  various  sections  of  the  diagram 
drawn  by  the  experimenter,  rather  than  demanding  of  him  the 
active  reproduction  of  some  complex  code  message.  In  the  Civil 
War  code  test,  experimenters  have  found  that  the  most  significant 
process  involved  is,  not  the  utilizing  of  a  particular  kind  of  im¬ 
agery,  but  the  need  of  an  intense,  purposive  attention,  inwardly 
directed  for  the  analysis  and  association  of  the  problem  in  hand. 
The  improvement  appearing  with  practice  in  the  code  test  has 
been  brought  out  by  Dearborn  and  Brewer  (25),  requiring  the 
subject  to  write  long  passages  in  terms  of  the  code  language. 

Another  group  of  related  tests,  generally  called  “cancellation” 
tests,  require  the  rapid  striking  out,  or  cancelling,  of  certain  let¬ 
ters,  numbers,  groups  of  letters  or  numbers,  parts  of  speech,  or 
other  units,  from  a  page  of  heterogeneous  stimuli.  As  is  evident 
from  the  summary  made  by  Whipple  (74,  I,  pp.  305-6),  the 
psychological  elements  involved  have  been  differently  analyzed 
and  interpreted  by  different  experimenters;  and  this  lack  of  con¬ 
cord  may  be  partly  due  to  the  wide  individual  differences  which, 
as  Hollingworth  (38)  concludes,  characterize  performance  in 
the  test.  A  more  elaborate  form  of  test,  using  numerals,  was 
developed  by  Taylor.  The  arabic  numbers,  from  one  to  fifty, 
were  scattered  irregularly  over  the  surface  of  a  small  sheet  of 
paper.  The  subject  then  connected  the  numbers  by  drawing 
lines,  beginning  at  one  and  continuing  up  to  fifty;  or  in  the  form 
of  this  test  used  by  Benedict,  Miles,  Roth  and  Smith  (7),  he 
simply  pointed  successively  to  the  numbers  in  proper  order.  The 
use  of  spoken  and  written  language  in  allied  tests  of  association 
and  discrimination  occurs  in  such  methods  as  the  naming  of 
colors  or  forms  displayed  successively;  or  the  speaking  or  writ¬ 
ing  of  words  associated  with  those  on  a  given  list. 


328 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


Various  “motor  coordination"  and  “dotting"  tests  are  also  re¬ 
lated  to  serial  action.  In  Dearborn  and  Brewer's  (25)  “Com¬ 
plex  Dotting  Test,”  each  square  on  a  sheet  of  coordinate  paper 
bears  a  digit — one,  two  or  three — indicating  the  number  of  dots 
to  be  placed  therein  by  the  subject.  Woodworth’s  (80)  subjects 
made  efforts  to  strike  rapidly  in  succession,  with  a  pencil,  the 
centers  of  squares,  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter,  on  coordinate 
paper.  Following  a  suggestion  from  Whipple,  the  Healy  and 
Fernald  (33,  p.  42)  “Motor  Coordination”  test  requires  the 
placing  of  a  dot  in  each  of  150  half-inch  squares  on  similar 
paper.  In  these  tasks,  simple  discrimination  and  selective  re¬ 
sponse  are  complicated  by  the  need  of  precision  of  movement, 
and  hence  these  tests  seem  to  occupy  a  ground  between  serial 
action  and  the  so-called  “target"  tests. 

In  considering  the  relation  of  these  numerous  “substitution,” 
“code/’  “cancellation,”  or  “coordination"  tests  to  serial  action, 
certain  fundamental  characteristics  are  found  common  to  both 
the  former  and  the  latter.  Broadly  speaking,  the  entire  group 
involves  a  “reaction"  process,  more  or  less  analogous  to  that 
in  the  classical  “choice  reactions/’  Thus  the  “substitution"  and 
serial  action  tests  present  similarities  to  the  reaction  experiments 
by  Donders’  “B”  method,  wherein  each  stimulus  requires  a  se¬ 
lective  reaction  in  accordance  with  a  definite  associative  process. 
The  “cancellation"  tests  demand  repeated  choice  between  move¬ 
ment  and  no  movement,  as  in  the  Donders’  “C”  method.  The 
more  complex  tests  are  usually  types  of  “association  reactions.” 
In  the  code  tests,  however,  the  relationship  is  more  remote :  the 
stimuli  appear  in  toto,  as  words  or  sentences,  to  be  so  retained, 
analyzed,  and  associated,  unit  by  unit,  with  corresponding  ele¬ 
ments  of  some  other  retained,  represented,  analyzed  and  asso¬ 
ciated  scheme,  as  to  result  in  a  series  of  appropriate  complex  re¬ 
sponses.  In  this  situation,  the  central  process  bulks  so  large  and 
becomes  so  intricate  as  to  minimize  the  parts  played  by  sensory 
and  motor  factors.  It  is  the  bold  features  of  these  various  tests 
which  proclaim  their  relationship  to  reaction  experiments;  and 
they  all  vary  from  their  prototype  in  the  continuous,  rather  than 
isolated,  character  of  the  reactions  demanded. 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


329 


A  second  fundamental  characteristic  of  the  group  is  the  de¬ 
mand  for  that  “close  attention  and  steadiness  of  purpose”  which 
Healy  and  Fernald  (33)  found  essential  to  the  transliterating  of 
words  into  a  code  in  the  absence  of  the  code  alphabet.  As  Wood- 
worth  and  Wells  (81)  remark  in  their  discussion  of  “measures 
of  mental  alertness,”  “In  a  test  of  either  free  or  controlled  asso¬ 
ciations  calling  for  a  series  of  responses  in  quick  succession  to 
a  series  of  stimuli,  the  speed  of  the  performance  depends  on 
maintaining  the  proper  adjustment  throughout  the  series,  in  op¬ 
position  to  the  many  interfering  tendencies  generated  by  the 
successive  stimuli.”  A  unity  of  purpose,  signified  by  an  alert  at¬ 
tention,  must  bind  together  the  concatenated  responses.  Distrac¬ 
tions  continually  appear,  whether  caused  by  competing  irrelevant 
letters,  as  in  cancellation,  or  disturbing  imagery,  as  in  the  code 
test,  or  the  conflicting  associations  of  the  substitution  test,  or 
that  anticipatory  “set”  which  tends  continually  to  assert  itself 
with  false  prophecies,  as  in  serial  action.  The  efficiency  and  in¬ 
efficiency  of  attention  is  reflected  in  all  the  tests  by  processes  of 
“overlapping,”  and  “interference” — the  former  characterized  by 
a  synthetic  organization  of  the  reactions,  so  that  perception  and 
discrimination  of  the  new  stimulus  take  place  while  the  reaction 
to  the  previous  stimulus  is  still  under  way;  and  the  latter  oc¬ 
curring  when  conflicting  irrelevant  associations  accumulate  and 
interpose  with  false  leads,  resulting  in  confusion  and  error.  The 
successful  performance  of  all  these  tests,  therefore,  involves  a 
riveting  of  attention  to  relevant  factors  despite  a  host  of  dis¬ 
tracting  rivals.  Accordingly,  Meumann’s  (51,  p.  393)  insistence 
that  the  cancellation  test  is  at  bottom  a  measure  of  capacity  for 
observation  in  line  with  a  definite  purpose,  would  largely  apply 
to  these  related  tests. 

In  comparing  serial  action,  as  outlined  above,  with  these 
“substitution”  and  other  related  tests,  certain  general  differences 
also  appear.  The  fundamental  distinction  to  be  drawn  is  that, 
while  the  related  tests  involve  various  complications  of  attention, 
and  of  association  and  response,  the  serial  action  test  strips  the 
process  of  as  many  secondary  and  acquired  features  as  possible. 


330 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


Specifically,  in  serial  action,  the  visual  field  presents  to  attention 
only  one  discrete  stimulus,  which  cannot  be  succeeded  by  any 
other  until  a  discriminative  response  has  been  made  to  it,  while 
the  other  tests  set  the  relevant  stimulus  in  the  midst  of  an  array 
of  foreign  appeals,  including  the  stimulus  which  will  next  de¬ 
mand  a  response.  This  simplifying  of  the  situation  in  serial 
action  becomes  apparent  also  in  a  comparison  of  the  characters 
of  stimuli,  associations,  and  reactions.  In  related  tests,  the 
stimuli  consist  of  letters,  symbolic  designs,  numerals,  diagrams  or 
other  characters  savoring  of  the  academic.  The  real  complexity 
of  such  characters,  quite  unrealized  by  the  literate  observer, 
becomes  apparent  when  a  totally  illiterate  subject  faces  the  test, 
as  occurred  repeatedly  when  unschooled  army  recruits  were  help¬ 
less  in  dealing  with  the  “Digit-Symbol”  test.  The  tendency  in  the 
development  of  serial  action  tests  has  been  to  approximate  the 
simplicity  of  the  simple  reaction,  in  choosing  the  visual  or  aud¬ 
itory  stimuli.  The  associative  processes,  moreover,  are  to  be 
stripped  down  to  fundamental,  natural  coordinations.  The  ob¬ 
ject  is  not  to  measure  the  time  required  to  form  certain  intricate, 
arbitrary  associations,  but  to  gauge  the  native  efficiency  of  the 
subject  in  those  associations  which  need  only  be  pointed  out 
in  order  to  be  permanently  acquired.  A  similar  contrast  is 
apparent  in  the  nature  of  the  respective  motor  expressions.  While 
the  other  tests  employ  such  fine  coordinations  as  occur  in  writing, 
and  involve  such  uncontrolled  variables  as  the  extent,  fineness 
and  accuracy  of  pencil  marks,  serial  action  reduces  the  various 
responses  to  their  simplest  terms,  following,  once  more,  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  simple  reaction.  Thus,  instead  of  employing  the 
motor  refinements  of  a  single  hand  or  member,  serial  action 
tests  seek  out  the  motor  capacities  of  various  members,  in  their 
simple,  basic  forms.  And  thus,  while  the  “substitution”  tests 
are  of  service  chiefly  in  exemplifying  the  learning  process,  and 
while  the  “cancellation”  test  bears  a  somewhat  complex  and 
varying  relationship  to  attention  and  perception,  the  serial  action 
measurement  takes  its  significance  from  its  isolation  of  a  basic 
“personal  equation”  in  motor  capacities. 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


33i 


Conditions  Affecting  the  Time  and  Character 
of  Serial  Action  Measurements 

Before  undertaking  to  standardize  a  test  of  serial  action  and 
harvesting  data  for  comparative  purposes,  it  is  essential  that 
the  experimenter  should  appreciate  the  enormous  number  of 
variables,  both  objective  and  subjective,  which  are  involved  in 
any  reaction  test,  and  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  the  time 
measurements  to  every  factor  in  the  situation.  On  the  basis  of 
the  multitudinous  reaction  experiments  of  the  past  fifty  years, 
therefore,  a  summary  of  the  chief  conditions  which  have  been 
found  to  play  parts  in  the  reaction  process  should  be  made,  even 
though  it  be  rough.  In  thus  sifting  the  available  data,  the  point 
of  reference  is,  throughout,  the  applicability  of  these  considera¬ 
tions  to  the  particular  type  of  reaction  measurements  involved  in 
this  investigation. 

Objective  Factors:  (1)  The  Stimuli.  Summaries  of  the 
relationships  between  reaction  time  and  the  quality,  intensity, 
duration  and  extensity  of  the  stimulus  have  been  made  by  Wundt 
(83),  Jastrow  (39),  Ladd  and  Woodworth  (45),  Todd  (71), 
Henmon  (35),  Wells  (73),  and  others.  Thus  in  comparing  the 
data  from  disparate  senses,  it  is  found  that  simple  reactions  to 
auditory  stimuli  are  quickest;  to  tactual  stimuli,  intermediate; 
and  to  visual,  longest.  Wundt  adds  (83,  p.  429)  that  the  ‘dif¬ 
ferences  in  the  different  senses  disappear  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  threshold.” 

With  reference  to  intensity,  there  is  also  some  agreement. 
Wundt,  (83,  p.  428-30)  found  that  the  reaction  time  decreases 
rapidly  as  the  stimulus  rises  in  intensity  above  the  threshold,  but 
reaches  a  plateau  where  it  remains  constant  despite  greater  in¬ 
tensity.  Froeberg  (30)  laid  down  the  law  that,  within  the 
middle  range  of  visual  reactions,  the  reaction  time  tends  to  in¬ 
crease  arithmetically  as  the  intensity  of  the  stimulus  decreases 
geometrically ;  in  auditory  reactions,  he  found  a  somewhat  pro¬ 
portional  shortening  of  time  with  increase  in  intensity.  Dunlap 
and  Wells  (27)  did  not  entirely  corroborate  these  relationships. 

The  size  or  extensity  of  the  stimulus  seems  to  be  significant, 


33  2 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


Froeberg  (30,  p.  23-4)  formulating  the  general  law  that  the  time 
of  reaction  increases  with  decreasing  size  of  the  visual  stimulus. 

Wundt  asserted  (83,  p.  430)  that,  apparently,  in  all  the  senses 
a  very  brief  stimulus  produces  a  quicker  reaction  than  one  dis¬ 
tinctly  continuous.  Froeberg  (30)  stated  that  the  time  of  re¬ 
action  increases  with  decreasing  duration  of  the  stimulus.  In 
1913,  Wells  (73,  p.  59),  using  successively  and  not  indiscrimin¬ 
ately,  auditory  stimuli  of  various  lengths,  found  that  their  dura¬ 
tion  did  not  materially  affect  the  reaction  times.  The  results  of 
his  visual  experiments  were  equivocal,  very  small  differences 
being  apparent.  However,  the  suggestion  was  that  the  reaction 
time  decreased  regularly  as  the  duration  of  the  stimulus  de¬ 
creased. 

In  considering  the  relation  of  the  attributes  of  sensation  to 
the  time  required  for  reactions,  several  experimenters  have 
pointed  to  the  “dynamogenic  effect”  of  increased  or  diminished 
intensity,  extensity  and  duration  of  the  stimulus. 

When  the  reaction  involves  a  “cognitive”  process  in  addition 
to  perception,  it  is  found  that  the  cognition  of  qualities  occupies 
a  shorter  time  than  that  of  intensities.  The  cognition  of  direction 
or  position,  whether  visual,  auditory  or  tactual,  requires  less 
time  than  that  of  the  corresponding  quality  or  intensity.  Ex¬ 
periments  show  that  the  cognition  of  distance  from  our  own 
body,  by  means  of  sight,  consumes  the  same  average  time  as  the 
cognition  of  visual  qualities.  Various  considerations  are  sum¬ 
marized  by  Kulpe  (44,  p.  417). 

The  investigation  of  “discriminative”  reactions  yields  proof 
that  the  discrimination  of  the  positions  of  two  or  more  stimuli 
is  extremely  rapid.  Thus  Bourdon  (10)  discovered  that  it  was 
easier  to  perceive  that  a  color  was  at  the  right  or  at  the  left  of 
another  color,  than  to  perceive  that  it  was  identical  with,  or 
different  from,  another.  Successive  discrimination  has,  in  gen¬ 
eral,  been  found  more  difficult  than  simultaneous  discrimination. 

However,  in  all  “discriminative”  reactions,  the  primary  factor 
in  the  reaction  time  is  the  relative  difference  between  the  stimuli ; 
a  secondary  factor  is  their  absolute  difference.  The  more  similar 
the  stimuli,  the  more  difficult  is  the  discrimination,  and  the  longer 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


333 


the  reaction  time.  In  the  words  of  Woodrow  (78),  “As  the 
difficulty  of  discrimination  varies,  there  is  a  variation  in  the  cor¬ 
responding  discrimination  reaction  times.”  If  the  objective  dif¬ 
ferences  are  decreased  successively  by  equal  amounts,  the  reaction 
time  is  lengthened  proportionally,  until  the  threshold  of  dis¬ 
crimination  is  approached.  The  explanation  of  this  relationship 
seems  to  be  two-fold:  (1)  If  the  stimuli  are  very  similar,  com¬ 
pleter  apprehension  of  them  is  necessary  before  the  reaction  can 
occur;  and  (2)  under  the  more  difficult  conditions,  the  prepara¬ 
tion  to  react  quickly  is  less  thorough-going,  and  innervation  is 
not  so  completely  accomplished. 

Absolute  differences  between  the  stimuli  are  also  significant  in 
determining  the  time  of  discriminative  reactions.  From  his 
experiments  with  the  “chain  reactions”  of  six  subjects,  wherein 
the  particular  reactions  were  determined  by  the  discrimination 
of  the  lengths  of  lines,  Miinsterberg  (53)  found  that  the  re¬ 
action  times  decreased  somewhat  as  the  absolute  differences  be¬ 
tween  the  lengths  of  the  lines  were  increased.  He  concluded  that 
“for  our  subjective  discrimination,  therefore,  the  stronger  effect 
of  the  relative  differences  of  stimuli  is  constantly  influenced  by 
the  weaker  effect  of  the  absolute  differences  in  stimuli.”  Hen- 
mon  (34,  p.  53)  corroborated  this  conclusion  but  found  the 
influence  of  absolute  differences  not  as  pronounced  as  had  Miin- 
sterberg. 

The  time  of  discriminative  reactions  having  been  found  to 
vary  in  accordance  with  differences  in  stimuli,  Cattell  (18)  pro¬ 
posed  to  apply  the  principle  in  a  broad  way  as  a  new  psycho¬ 
physical  method.  As  described  by  Henmon  (35,  p.  31),  this 
method  would  proceed  on  the  assumption  that  “differences  in 
sensations  should  be  equal  if  it  takes  equal  time  to  perceive  them, 
while  if  the  differences  are  unequal,  the  greater  the  difference, 
the  shorter  the  time  of  perception.  By  this  method,  it  should 
be  possible  to  arrange  in  accurate  series,  groups  of  differences  in 
quality,  or  intensity,  in  every  department  of  experience,  simul¬ 
taneously  or  successively  perceived.”  As  early  as  1893,  Cattell 
had  applied  this  principle  to  the  study  of  the  time  of  perception 
of  differences  in  intensity.  Henmon  (34)  in  1906  carried  the 


334 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


method  into  the  fields  of  discrimination  of  differences  in  color, 
in  the  length  of  lines,  and  in  pitch.  He  later  asserted  (35,  p.  31) 
that  “the  fact  shown  in  all  these  experiments  that  the  discrimin¬ 
ation  reaction  time  varies  uniformly  with  the  differences  to  be 
distinguished,  suggests  the  possibility  of  a  wide  application  of 
the  method  in  individual  psychology,  comparable  with  that  of  the 
association  reaction  already  accomplished.” 

In  the  more  complex  discriminative  reactions,  such  as  those 
involving  letters,  figures  or  other  symbols  as  stimuli,  clearness  of 
outline  plays  a  very  important  role.  Numbers  require  longer 
reaction  times  than  do  colors,  or  rectangles  of  various  sizes, 
according  to  Bourdon  (10).  Any  test  based  upon  the  discrim¬ 
ination  of  such  stimuli  lends  a  primary  advantage  to  literate  sub¬ 
jects,  since  they  readily  grasp  the  character  of  the  symbols. 

The  greater  the  number  of  possible  impressions,  the  longer  is 
the  reaction  time.  That  this  lengthening  of  the  time  is  partly 
due  to  the  process  of  distinction  between  the  various  impressions, 
and  is  not  entirely  dependent  on  the  number  of  associated  move¬ 
ments,  has  been  shown  by  the  use  of  “incomplete”  or  “subjective” 
methods,  wherein  the  number  of  distinctions  is  varied  while  the 
number  of  movements  remains  constant.  The  experimental  work 
of  Cattell,  Friederich,  Tischer  and  others  (39,  p.  35)  points  to 
“a  slight  increase  of  distinction  time  with  the  increase  of  the 
range  of  impressions,  but  complicated  with  other  factors  as 
well.” 

In  all  reaction  measurements,  the  latent  time  of  the  stimulus 
must  be  considered.  A  standard  tachistoscope  involves  a  latent 
time  of  perhaps  3  sigmas. 

(2)  The  Reaction  Movement.  In  spite  of  frequent  critic¬ 
isms,  the  telegraph  key  has  been  generally  used  for  registering 
reactions  (83,  p.  390,  footnote).  Many  other  forms  of  keys  and 
reaction  movements  have,  however,  been  tried  out.  In  his  study 
of  various  reaction  movements  by  means  of  graphic  records, 
Williams  (77,  p.  102)  found  proof  that  “the  form  of  key  has  a 
marked  influence  on  the  reaction  time,”  and  also  upon  the  charac¬ 
ter  of  the  attention. 

Both  the  “lift"  and  the  “press"  type  of  reaction  have  been 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


335 


widely  used.  The  former  entails  the  disadvantage  of  frequently 
involving  “antagonistic  reactions. ”  Williams  (77,  p.  149)  found 
that  “reaction  time  work  which  is  done  with  the  ‘press’  reaction 
will  be  free  from  the  complications  due  to  the  antagonistic  move¬ 
ment.  ’  On  the  other  hand,  Breitweiser  (11,  p.  46)  concluded 
that  the  resistance  offered  by  keys  in  the  “press’’  reaction  is  an 
important  variable,  since,  within  certain  limits,  the  greater  the 
resistance,  the  longer  the  reaction  time.  For  the  “lift’’  form 
of  movement,  variations  in  resistance  naturally  affect  the  time 
only  in  a  very  slight  degree.  Breitweiser  did  not  confirm  Fere’s 
conclusion  that  when  the  subject  knows  beforehand  the  weight 
to  be  encountered,  the  length  of  the  reaction  time  will  not  vary 
with  the  weight. 

The  amplitude  of  the  movement  also  has  a  bearing  on  the 
character  of  the  result.  In  discussing  reaction  movements, 
Wundt  (83,  p.  390)  states  that  “the  combined  movement  of  arm 
and  hand,  considering  the  natural  use  of  which  it  takes  advantage, 
is  to  be  preferred,  because  it  not  only  is  accomplished  the  most 
rapidly,  on  the  whole,  but  also  may  be  repeated  for  the  longest 
time  without  fatigue.”  The  amplitude  of  movement,  however, 
like  the  resistance  offered  by  the  key,  must  be  strictly  limited  and 
uniform  throughout  a  series  of  measurements,  if  fast  and  reliable 
reaction  times  are  to  be  secured. 

A  certain  excess  force  is  usually  exerted  by  the  subject  in 
making  reaction  movements,  sometimes  thus  reflecting  his  habit¬ 
ual  energy  in  responding  to  stimuli.  Breitweiser  (12)  found, 
in  his  experiments  with  the  variable  in  the  manipulation  of  re¬ 
action  keys,  that  the  excess  force  “did  not  seem  to  vary  in  a 
marked  or  definite  way  with  the  resistance’’  of  the  key.  This 
characteristic  ponderosity  and  surplus  force  in  the  reactions  of 
some  subjects  may  point  to  individual  differences  in  motor  con¬ 
trol  which  justly  are  reflected  in  lengthened  reaction  times. 

Although  wide  experimentation  has  been  carried  on  regarding 
the  comparative  reaction  times  of  the  two  hands,  universal  agree¬ 
ment  is  lacking  in  the  results  of  the  various  students.  Tischer, 
Merkel  and  Cattell  found  the  reaction  time  approximately  the 
same  for  two  hands.  Poffenberger  (59,  p.  65)  concluded,  with 


336 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


respect  to  both  Kiesow’s  data  and  his  own,  that  “there  is  a  dif¬ 
ference  in  the  reaction  time  of  the  right  and  left  hands,  in  the 
subjects  tested/*  He  found  (but  with  very  slight  difference) 
that  in  the  right-handed  subjects,  the  right  hand  is  somewhat 
faster  than  the  left;  while  the  case  is  vice  versa  with  the  left- 
handed  persons. 

According  to  Henmon  (35,  p.  11),  however,  there  seems  to 
be  general  agreement  that  “in  motor  reactions,  and  in  choice 
reactions,  the  differences  are  insignificant.” 

In  measuring  the  reaction  time  of  each  of  the  five  fingers,  with 
simple  reactions,  Munsterberg  (52)  found  that  while  at  first 
the  thumb  and  little  finger  reacted  more  slowly  than  the  others, 
after  some  practice  the  times  of  all  were  substantially  the  same. 
Fere,  however,  gathered  some  data  suggesting  that  the  fingers 
making  the  strongest  movements  react  in  the  shortest  times.  In 
1910,  Kiesow  (41),  using  auditory  stimuli,  made  a  series  of  ex¬ 
periments  on  the  reaction  times  of  each  of  the  ten  fingers.  Fifty 
reactions  of  the  sensory  type  were  made  with  each  of  the  five 
fingers  of  each  hand.  The  results  showed  that,  in  the  right  hand 
the  speed  of  reaction  of  the  fingers,  from  quickest  to  slowest, 
ran  in  the  order:  third,  fourth,  first,  second  and  fifth.  In  the  left 
hand,  the  order  was:  fifth,  first,  third,  fourth  and  second.  The 
differences  between  the  respective  times  were  very  small  through¬ 
out,  while  the  mean  variations  ran  from  13  to  19.5  sigmas.  With 
respect  to  the  relative  speed  of  the  fingers,  the  generally  accepted 
point  of  view  among  experimenters  has  been  that  the  reactions 
of  unpracticed  or  slightly-used  fingers  are  the  longest. 

As  demonstrated  by  Merkel  and  others,  the  time  of  the  choice 
reaction  varies  directly  with  the  number  of  possible  movements 
coordinated  with  corresponding  sensory  cues.  If  the  difficulty 
of  discrimination  remains  constant  for  all  the  series  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  choices,  from  two  progressively  to  ten, 
lengthens  the  reaction  time  consistently  until,  with  ten  move¬ 
ments,  it  has  been  found  to  exceed  the  time  for  a  “cognition”  re¬ 
action  by  300  or  400  sigmas.  Kulpe  (44,  p.  419)  explains  this 
result  by  the  fact  that  “the  degree  of  liability  of  reproduction  and 
the  quickness  with  which  it  is  realized  by  connection  in  the 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


337 


particular  instance,  are  certainly  dependent  upon  the  number  of 
equally  possible  connections — and  the  greater  their  number,  the 
greater  will  be  the  inhibition  or  retardation  of  the  individual 
reproduction."  It  has  been  shown  that  if  the  associations  be¬ 
tween  stimuli  and  movements  be  very  natural  and  simple,  an  in¬ 
crease  in  the  number  of  movements  will  not  have  a  very  marked 
effect  upon  the  length  of  the  reaction  time. 

From  the  experiments  of  Seashore,  Coover,  and  McComas 
it  is  evident  that,  in  tests  of  continuous  discriminative  reactions, 
the  most  convenient  and  satisfactory  number  of  movements  is 
four.  Less  than  that  number  brings  into  consideration  too  high 
a  degree  of  anticipation,  while  more  than  four  movements  has 
proved  to  be  cumbersome  and  confusing. 

Subjective  Factors. — The  character  of  the  instructions  and 
their  manner  of  presentation  are  profoundly  significant  for  the 
performance;  and  this  importance  extends  to  the  minute  details 
of  phraseology  as  well  as  to  the  main  principles  given  to  guide 
the  subject’s  behavior.  The  wide  differences  and  the  high  vari¬ 
ability  shown  in  many  reaction  measurements  are  partially  due 
to  the  variations  in  the  completeness,  the  emphasis,  and  the  clear¬ 
ness  of  the  directions.  The  continual  use  of  spurs — such  as  tell¬ 
ing  the  subject  the  best  time  he  has  made,  or  encouraging  him  to 
break  another  individual’s  record — is  extremely  effective. 

Closely  bound  up  with  the  general  character  of  the  instructions 
is  the  “charge,”  or  the  degree  of  effort  induced  into  the  subject’s 
attitude.  By  proper  suggestion,  the  energy  and  application  of 
the  subject  can  be  maintained  at  a  maximum.  While  a  certain 
tedium  or  monotony  appears  in  reacting  to  isolated  stimuli,  con¬ 
tinuous  reactions  call  out  a  spontaneous  and  sustained  interest;  as 
McComas  (49)  remarks,  the  subjects  consider  it  “fun”  to  plunge 
into  the  test  and  rush  through  the  ever-changing  series  of  re¬ 
sponses. 

The  great  importance  of  expectation  on  the  part  of  the  subject 
has  been  emphasized  by  Wundt  (83,  p.  435)  and  others.  For 
fast  and  steady  reactions,  the  reagent  must  be  familiarized 
thoroughly  with  the  stimuli.  Jastrow  (39,  p.  39)  formulated 
the  general  law  that  “the  more  definite  the  foreknowledge  of  the 


338 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


subject,  the  quicker  the  reaction."  The  increase  in  time  when 
any  factors  relative  to  either  the  stimuli  or  the  responses  are  not 
explicit  has  been  made  very  patent  by  various  cognition  and  dis¬ 
crimination  experiments.  Anticipation  is  inextricably  interwoven 
with  expectation  in  the  subject's  attitude;  that  is,  he  not  only 
knows  the  characteristics  and  details  of  his  prospective  task,  but 
also  predicts  the  precise  nature  of  each  next-appearing  stimulus, 
and  prepares  a  corresponding  reaction.  Out  of  such  forecasting 
develop  premature,  delayed  and  wrong  reactions.  Some  pre¬ 
liminary  trials  are  usually  necessary,  in  order  to  clear  up  and 
define  the  subject’s  expectation.  These  initiatory  reactions  at  the 
same  time  can  supply  the  place  of  the  “shock-absorbers"  sug¬ 
gested  by  Link  (47,  p.  155)  for  introducing  the  subject  to  the 
test. 

That  the  time  of  reaction  is  a  function  of  the  degree  of  atten¬ 
tion  has  long  been  a  demonstrated  fact.  Thus  Dallenbach  (23,  p. 
507)  states  that  “introspectively  distinguished  variations  of  atten¬ 
tion  ( i.e .,  clearness)  are  closely  paralleled  by  corresponding  dif¬ 
ferences  at  the  same  level  in  accuracy  of  work  performed,  in  rate 
of  reaction,  and  in  degree  of  precision  as  expressed  by  the  m.v." 
So  intimate  and  regular  is  this  dependency  that  the  time  of  re¬ 
action  has  been  used  by  Woodrow  (78)  for  measuring  degrees 
of  attention. 

The  complex  reaction  is  considered  by  some  experimenters  to 
involve  a  nicer  concentration  of  attention  than  does  the  simple 
reaction.  Thus  Henri  (37,  p.  245)  proposed  the  use  of  dis¬ 
criminative  reactions  for  the  study  of  attention,  pointing  out 
that  the  “mean  variation,  the  time,  and  the  irregularities  in  the 
curve  of  reactions  will  give  a  relative  idea  of  the  state  of  atten¬ 
tion  with  the  subject." 

Out  of  the  long  dispute  regarding  the  real  significance  of 
the  “direction  of  attention"  in  simple,  and  also  in  complex  re¬ 
actions,  there  has  grown  general  agreement  that,  as  Woodrow 
(78,  p.  14)  declares,  “a  time  measurement  cannot  be  a  satisfac¬ 
tory  measurement  of  efficiency  except  when  the  work  is  done 
with  the  sole  idea  of  doing  it  as  quickly  as  possible  ;  as,  for  exam- 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


339 


pie,  in  the  case  of  a  ‘motor'  reaction.”  Among  the  chief  objec¬ 
tions  to  the  use  of  “sensory"  reactions  in  the  tests  may  be  men¬ 
tioned  :  the  complication  of  the  reaction  by  adding  observing  to 
reacting  (Breitweiser)  ;  the  fact  that  the  sensory  form  tends  to 
change  with  practice  to  the  motor  form  (Ach)  ;  the  varying 
degrees  of  determination  to  react  as  quickly  as  possible  (Ach)  ; 
the  ambiguity  of  the  instructions,  which  leave  to  the  observer  the 
task  of  determining  the  promptness  with  which  to  react  (Wood- 
row). 

Somewhat  analogous  are  the  objections  to  the  use  of  any 
possible  “sensory”  form  of  complex  reaction,  as  suggested  by 
Munsterberg.  It  is  indeed  evident  that  in  reactions  after  dis¬ 
crimination  and  choice,  the  attention  should  be  bound  down  to 
specific  functions,  which  cannot  well  be  varied:  First,  for  dis¬ 
criminating  the  particular  sensory  impression  received;  and  sec¬ 
ond,  for  inaugurating  the  appropriate  movement.  This  delimi¬ 
tation  of  attention  is  particularly  effective  in  ordinary  complex 
reactions  because:  (i)  the  performing  of  each  reaction  is  a 
discrete  problem,  preceded  by  a  definite  preparatory  stage;  (2) 
the  associations  of  stimuli — such  as  colors,  words  or  sounds, — 
with  movements  are  usually  somewhat  artificial;  and  (3)  the 
number  of  reactions  made  is  not  usually  great  enough  to  stamp 
the  characteristics  of  an  automatism — or  “automatic  coordina¬ 
tion”  upon  the  performance. 

Investigations  of  the  function  of  attention  in  continuous  dis¬ 
criminative  reactions  have  shown  that  some  modifications  of 
the  attentive  process  appear.  Instead  of  consisting  of  an  aggre¬ 
gation  of  isolated  reactions,  each  characterized  by  the  preparation 
and  sharp  focalization  of  attention,  the  whole  series  of  move¬ 
ments  becomes  unified  by  a  common  purpose  and  by  an  habitual 
attitude,  just  as  in  the  fused  serial  actions  of  daily  life,  like 
reading  or  playing  a  musical  instrument.  Experimenters  there¬ 
fore  find  an  “overlapping”  process  occurring,  by  which  a  flow, 
rather  than  a  chain,  of  reactions  takes  place.  The  discriminative 
and  the  volitional  processes  in  the  subject’s  responses  are  some¬ 
what  “telescoped.”  In  this  kind  of  serial  adjustment,  “inter- 


340 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


ference”  also  appears,  as  the  associations  accumulate.  The  at¬ 
tention  moves  along,  with  the  consciousness  of  new  stimuli  im¬ 
pending  over  the  present  responses,  and  a  varied  finger-play  ac¬ 
companying  the  shifting  signals.  Thus  a  “motor”  type  of  atten¬ 
tion  develops,  in  an  efficient  subject:  that  is,  an  attention  directed 
predominantly  neither  to  stimuli  nor  to  reacting  members,  but 
to  achieving  a  seriated  adjustment  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

In  continuous  reactions,  furthermore,  the  number  of  reactions 
usually  aggregates  so  great  a  total,  that  “automatic  coordination” 
develops,  and  attention  is  liberated  for  dealing  more  synthetically 
with  the  discriminative  and  selective  processes. 

As  analyzed  by  Kiilpe  (44,  pp.  418-19),  the  certainty  of  the 
association  between  impression  and  movement  may  be  ( 1 ) 
originally  given  as  a  result  of  previous  individual  development; 
(2)  consciously  effected  by  practice,  or  (3)  involuntarily  pro¬ 
duced  by  repetition  in  the  course  of  the  experiments. 

The  associative  connection  of  reaction  movements  with  de¬ 
finite  directions  in  space  is  particularly  easy,  making  use,  as  it 
does,  of  previously  developed  habits.  Bourdon’s  (10)  experi¬ 
ments  with  colors,  numbers,  and  sizes,  in  which  reactions  were 
made  by  the  right  or  the  left  hand  to  the  corresponding  one  of 
two  stimuli,  showed  in  a  marked  way  the  “close  association 
which  exists  between  the  sensation  at  the  right  and  the  move¬ 
ments  of  the  right  hand,  or  between  that  at  the  left  and  the  move¬ 
ments  of  the  left  hand.”  He  found,  for  example,  that  if  the  asso¬ 
ciation  be  reversed,  and  the  stimulus  at  the  right  be  reacted  to 
with  the  left  hand,  the  reaction  times  were,  on  the  average,  50 
sigmas  longer.  The  direct  association  of  position  with  hand 
was  found  to  be  so  strong  that  reaction  with  the  right  hand  to 
a  red  stimulus  when  it  appeared  at  the  right  was  just  as  rapid 
as  a  simple  reaction  to  red.  He  concluded  that  “there  exists 
normally  an  intimate  association  between  the  sensation  at  the 
right  (or  left)  and  movements  of  the  right  hand  (or  left).  Or¬ 
dinarily,  when  we  grasp  an  object  situated  at  the  right,  it  is  with 
the  right  hand."  Anatomically,  as  Poffenberger  (59,  p.  64) 
points  out,  the  right  hand  is  most  directly  associated  with  objects 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


34i 


in  the  right  visual  field — that  is,  with  the  left-half  of  the  retinal 
field  of  each  eye. 

The  simpler  and  more  natural  the  association  between  stimulus 
and  movement,  the  shorter  the  reaction  time.  Thus  Miinsterberg 
(52)  found  that  the  reaction  times  for  the  five  fingers,  when  as¬ 
sociated  respectively  with  the  numbers  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  were 
considerably  shorter  than  the  times  of  the  same  fingers  when 
associated  with  the  declensional  forms  of  a  Latin  noun.  Simple 
associations  also  involve  less  probability  of  the  entry  of  super¬ 
ficial  or  adventitious  complications;  and  they  lead  to  better  ini¬ 
tial  performances  and  less  pronounced  improvement  curves  than 
do  the  more  complex  types. 

Although  the  subjective  factors  in  reaction  measurements  be 
standardized  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  yet  more  or  less  pro¬ 
nounced  inherent  differences  in  the  attitudes  of  subjects  continu¬ 
ally  appear.  In  accordance,  perhaps,  with  Meumann's  (50)  two¬ 
fold  classification  of  reagents — the  “impulsive”  type,  persons 
of  will,  whose  motor  development  has  been  vigorously  extended, 
and  the  “intellectuaL  type,  consisting  of  the  observant  and  re¬ 
flecting  group, — subjects  seem  to  fall  naturally  into  either  of  two 
characteristic  attitudes,  when  continuous  discriminative  reac¬ 
tions  are  undertaken:  they  either  actively  “push”  the  signals 
along  by  means  of  vigorous  reactions,  or  else  passively  follow 
their  beck  and  call.  The  experimenter  puts  a  premium  on  the 
former  type  of  reagent.  This  stress  upon  the  greatest  possible 
speed  must  be  tempered  by  a  recognition  of  the  difference  in 
native  capacity  and  habitual  performance.  Some  allowance  or 
“leeway”  must  be  granted  the  subject,  in  the  direction  of  Stern’s 
(67,  p.  86)  position:  “For  differential  psychology,  ‘maxima’ 
are  not  unimportant,  but  much  more  significant  for  it  are  ‘op¬ 
tima’  ;  that  is,  such  performance-values  as  are  indicative  of  the 
natural  inner  disposition.  The  method  followed  in  the  latter 
cases  runs  thus :  ‘make  your  behavior  now  what  seems  most 
natural  and  agreeable.’  Not  the  fastest  rate  of  speed  that  an 
individual  can  attain  under  the  pressure  of  great  haste,  but  the 
natural  pace  which  he  selects  for  proceeding,  when  he  is  not 


342 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


subject  to  temporal  considerations,  is  indicative  of  his  tempera- 
.qnent.” 

Practice  and  Fatigue. — The  time  of  both  simple  and  complex 
reactions  decreases  with  practice,  rapidly  at  first,  but  tends 
soon  to  approximate  a  limit.  The  greatest  decrease  occurs  in 
the  time  of  those  processes  which  are  most  complex  and  of 
greatest  initial  duration.  The  “sensorial”  form  of  reaction  shows 
the  greatest  improvement  in  speed,  and  its  character  at  the  same 
time  seems  to  approach  that  of  the  “motor”  reaction  (Wundt 
83,  p.  419).  In  their  study  of  the  types  of  reactions,  Angell 
and  Moore  (3)  found  that  “continued  practice  in  the  two  modes 
of  coordination  with  a  constant  stimulus,  under  constant  con¬ 
ditions,  results  in  two  highly  reflexive  forms,  not  of  widely  dif¬ 
ferent,  but  of  about  equal  time  values.”  The  “motor”  reactions 
remained  a  little  the  faster. 

With  practice  in  simple  reactions,  a  kind  of  “automatic  coor¬ 
dination”  of  impression  and  reaction  develops.  Following  longer 
practice,  the  same  coordination  is  built  up  in  complex  reactions, 
thus  gradually  eliminating  the  psychical  processes  and  giving  to 
the  reactions  a  generally  physiological  significance.  Wundt  (83, 
p.  471)  found  that  this  tendency  toward  automatism  develops 
most  readily  in  persons  of  naturally  “abbreviated”  mode  of 
reaction.  It  appears  most  rapidly  in  those  experiments  where 
the  number  of  impressions  and  of  movements  is  small,  and  the 
associations  between  them  are  natural. 

Diversity  of  opinion  reigns  with  respect  to  the  influence  of 
practice  upon  individual  differences.  The  experiments  of  Wundt 
(84,  p.  222)  and  his  collaborators,  especially  Alechsieff  (1,  p. 
15  ft)  led  the  former  to  conclude  that  “when  the  experiments 
are  carried  out  with  proper  care,  these  individual  differences 
(which  belong  to  the  discussions  of  psychological  character- 
ology)  disappear  more  and  more.  As  the  individual  differences 
disappear,  the  influence  of  the  variable  conditions,  such  as  dif¬ 
ferences  in  preparation  and  in  the  direction  of  attention,  become 
clearly  apparent.” 

On  the  other  hand,  the  experiments  of  Henmon  and  Wells 
(36)  showed  the  persistence  of  distinct  individual  differences  in 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


343 


the  simple  and  complex  reactions  of  two  long-experienced  sub¬ 
jects.  “Of  the  fact  of  these  individual  differences,  preserved 
long  after  practice  could  essentially  change  them,  there  can  be 
no  dispute.  .  .  Distinct  individual  differences  also  exist  in  the 
discriminative  or  choice  reactions,  but  in  the  opposite  direction 
from  those  of  the  simple  reactions. ” 

In  reaction  experiments,  fatigue  manifests  itself  through  a 
lengthened  reaction  time,  greater  variability,  fluctuations  of  at¬ 
tention,  and,  in  complex  reactions,  an  increased  number  of  errors. 
Since  the  first  investigations  of  Exner  (29)  upon  the  effects  of 
fatigue,  the  improvement  in  performance  due  to  practice  has 
been  regarded  as  somewhat  offset,  in  any  continued  series,  by  a 
deterioration  due  to  fatigue. 

The  extent  of  this  decline  in  efficiency,  when  long  series  of 
reactions  have  been  made,  has  generally  been  found  to  be  rela¬ 
tively  small.  Cattell  (17)  conducted  a  number  of  experiments 
to  determine  the  precise  effects  of  fatigue.  In  the  most  thor¬ 
ough-going  of  these,  1950  reactions,  consisting  of  a  combination 
of  different  groups  of  reactions — to  light,  white  surface,  letter, 
association  and  sound — were  made  without  interruption  during 
the  day,  from  8:30  a.  m.  to  n  p.  m.  in  B’s  series,  and  to  1  130 
a.  m.  in  C's  series.  Only  very  slight  changes  attributable  to 
fatigue  were  apparent  in  the  results.  Similarly  Patrizi’s  (55) 
series  of  tests,  in  which  only  two  seconds  intervened  between  suc¬ 
cessive  reactions,  showed  a  very  slight  lengthening  of  time  and 
increase  of  variability.  From  allied  experiments,  Woodworth 
(80)  concluded  that  the  central  apparatus  for  the  precise  adjust¬ 
ment  of  a  movement  is  susceptible  to  fatigue,  but  only  slightly 
so. 

Cattell  found  that  the  most  automatic  processes  were  the  least 
affected.  To  determine  the  rate  of  fatigue  of  different  factors — 
attention,  accommodation  and  convergence — Scripture  (60)  pro¬ 
duced  flashes  in  a  Geissler  tube,  at  regular  intervals,  and  the 
subject  pressed  his  key  in  response  to  each  flash.  It  was  con¬ 
cluded  from  the  experiments  that  ‘‘the  fatigue  in  reaction  time 
increases  with  the  complexity  of  the  adjustments  required  for 


344 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


perceiving  the  stimulus,”  and  that  “the  tendency  to  fall  into  a 
condition  of  daze  depends  on  the  fact  of  repetition  of  stimulus 
(fatigue  of  attention)  as  well  as  fatigue  from  adjustments.” 

The  analysis  of  achievement  in  two-hour  periods  of  continu¬ 
ous  reactions  led  Oehrn  (54)  to  conclude  that,  first,  occurred  a 
stage  in  which  practice  outweighed  fatigue,  and  then  a  stage 
wherein  fatigue  was  dominant.  On  the  basis  of  their  immense 
number  of  experiments — particularly  with  the  continuous  addi¬ 
tion  of  columns  of  digits — the  Kraepelin  school  analyzed  the 
“work  curve,”  finding  characteristics  which  generally  are  ap¬ 
plicable  to  serial  action.  Fundamental  in  every  continuous  pro¬ 
cess,  they  held,  were  the  effects  of  practice  and  fatigue — imme¬ 
diate  effects,  and  permanent  effects.  Among  secondary  factors 
were  the  preliminary  incitation  (Anregung),  the  preliminary 
spurt  (Antrieb),  a  fall  preceding  the  best  achievement  of  the 
work-period  (Ermudungsantrieb),  a  periodic  succession  of  spurts 
and  falls  in  performance  (  Willenspannung  and  Storungsantrieb) , 
and  a  final  spurt  (Schlussantrieb)  occurring  if  the  subject  dis¬ 
covered  that  he  was  near  the  end.  An  analysis  of  each  of  these 
processes  was  attempted.  “Variations  in  attention”  were  seen 
in  the  wave-like  periods  extending,  from  crest  to  crest,  over 
about  23/5  seconds. 

An  intensive  study  of  the  characteristics  of  continuous  men¬ 
tal  work  involving  (1)  sensitivity,  (2)  discrimination  and  (3) 
memory,  was  made  by  Seashore  and  Kent  (64)  in  1905.  The 
general  conclusions  drawn  from  three  widely  divergent  series  of 
experiments  were :  “A  thorough-going  periodicity  of  mental 
activity”  was  found.  “There  is  a  continuous  gradation  from 
the  period  of  the  momentary  active  impulse  up  to  the  hour-long 
waves  of  mental  efficiency.  The  efficiency  in  a  given  period,  say 
two  hours,  may  be  represented  by  an  irregular  wave,  the  re¬ 
sultant  of  a  series  of  partials.”  Three  kinds  of  waves  were 
found:  (1)  second  waves,  extending  over  not  more  than  a  few 
seconds;  (2)  minute  waves  involving  more  than  one  second 
wave,  but  less  than  20  minutes  long;  (3)  hour  waves,  whose 
periods  lie  between  the  minute  waves  and  diurnal  waves.  In  all 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


345 


continuous  work,  progressive  change,  with  respect  to  time,  ac¬ 
curacy  and  variability,  is  found. 

Individual  types  in  efficiency  of  continuous  work  have  been 
described  by  Kraepelin  (43).  Five  typical  kinds  of  “work 
curves”  were  discerned :  In  the  first  or  “positive”  curve,  prac¬ 
tice  dominates  the  performance  to  the  end  of  the  two-hour  tests 
given;  in  the  second,  fatigue  is  the  dominant  factor  throughout. 
The  third  form  of  curve  follows  the  trend  of  the  first,  but  shows 
fatigue  effect  opposing  the  spurts  of  improvement.  The  fourth 
type  illustrates  the  counter-balancing  of  practice  and  fatigue; 
while  the  fifth  includes  characteristics  of  the  other  types  except 
the  second. 

In  an  unpublished  study  of  mental  fatigue  by  the  use  of  the 
Seashore  psychergograph,  Florence  Brown  Sherbon  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Iowa  in  1904,  made  a  continuous  series  of  “choice” 
reactions,  totalling  16,000  in  number,  in  one  period  of  four  hours 
and  fifteen  minutes.  Characteristic  of  the  time  curve  were:  a 
high  initial  speed,  a  long  period  of  constancy,  a  heavy  drop  in 
speed  after  10,000  reactions,  followed  by  considerable  variability 
until  the  end  of  the  “work.”  The  number  of  errors  increased 
and  became  more  variable  as  the  test  progressed,  to  the  close. 

In  his  investigation  of  the  accuracy  of  various  observers  in 
continuously  performing  a  certain  series  of  calculations  mentally, 
and  registering  their  results  by  means  of  a  lip  or  finger-key, 
Yoakum  (87)  found  a  “fluctuating  character”  in  the  totals  of 
errors  per  minute,  the  errors  tending  to  group  themselves.  The 
error-groups  persisted  throughout  practice;  and  were  interpreted 
as  evidence  against  “the  possibility  of  considering  mental  work  as 
anything  apart  from  specific,  coordinated,  muscular  responses.” 
A  condition  of  strain  continually  appears,  and  the  shifting  of  the 
seat  of  the  ‘strains’  leads  to  the  production  of  a  new  center  for 
the  ‘vis  a  tergo’  sensations.  This  periodic  transition  shows — as 
is  generally  evident  in  consciousness — that  “a  center  of  kinaes- 
thetic  activity  is  calling  for  readjustment/’  (87,  pp.  108-10.) 

From  his  own  experiments  in  distributing  the  physical  ex¬ 
pression  of  the  work  among  various  members,  such  as  the  fingers 


346 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


and  the  lips,  and  from  related  experiments  of  Lombard  and  Hall, 
Yoakum  (87,  p.  107)  concluded  that  “as  a  theoretical  result,  the 
fluctuations  in  errors,  and  mind  wandering  may  perhaps  both  be 
largely  eliminated  by  the  arrangement  of  a  series  of  tests  that 
alternate  the  processes  used  in  tapping  the  records.  Thus  the 
habitual  working  rhythm  of  the  various  subjects  could  be  elim¬ 
inated  so  far  as  concerns  an  inferior  quality  of  work  appearing 
at  certain  periods.” 

Apparatus  and  Method 

The  apparatus  used  in  the  following  experiments  consists 
essentially  of  a  commutator  attached  to  a  typewriter  in  such  a 
manner  that  every  movement  of  a  key  on  the  typewriter  com¬ 
pletes  one  of  four  possible  circuits,  the  order  of  appearance  being 
determined  by  chance  for  a  series  of  seventy-five  reactions.  In 
these  four  circuits  may  be  placed  any  series  of  four  stimuli,  such 
as  colors,  forms,  words,  lights,  tones,  or  noises.  Four  keys  of 
the  typewriter,  in  the  middle  of  the  keyboard  (such  as  y,  t,  u,  i, 
or  5,  6,  7,  8),  are  so  marked  as  to  be  distinguishable,  to  both 
sight  and  touch,  from  the  other  keys.  Each  of  the  four  keys  is 
associated  with  one  of  the  four  stimuli.  The  subject  then  places 
four  fingers — the  index  and  middle  fingers  of  both  hands — 
lightly  on  these  keys,  and  proceeds  to  make  an  unbroken  series 
of  “reactions  after  discrimination  and  choice,”  in  the  following 
manner. 

Assume  that  the  four  keys,  designated  for  convenience  as 
1,  2.  3  and  4,  are  associated  respectively  with  four  tonal  stimuli 
of  the  same  pitch,  intensity  and  timbre,  located  in  four  easily  dis¬ 
cernible  directions,  1,  2,  3  and  4.  The  experimenter  then  in¬ 
augurates  the  “work”  by  turning  on  the  current,  thus  causing 
a  tone,  for  example,  in  direction  2.  The  subject  must  identify 
this  signal,  and  press  the  corresponding  key,  2,  as  quickly  as 
possible.  By  the  consequent  action  of  the  typewriter  carriage, 
the  commutator  is  moved  forward  a  step,  and  immediately  pro¬ 
duces  the  next  signal,  e.g.,  4.  In  response,  the  subject  must 
press  key  4,  thus  causing  the  appearance  of  the  following  signal. 
In  the  same  manner,  signal  follows  signal,  each  with  its  appro- 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


347 


priate  reaction,  to  the  end  of  the  line — seventy-five  spaces.  Mean¬ 
while  the  typewriter  keys  have  recorded  the  successive  reactions, 
so  that  they  can  be  checked  over  for  accuracy. 

Time  is  kept  in  gross  for  each  line,  with  a  stop-watch;  or  for 
certain  purposes  a  graphic  recorder  is  wired  with  the  keys  in 
such  a  way  as  to  furnish  a  graphic  time  and  error  record  for 
each  act.  Or,  the  starting  and  stopping  of  the  stop-watch  may 
be  mechanically  controlled  by  attaching  its  lever  to  the  armature 
of  a  magnet  which  is  so  connected  that  the  circuit  through  it 
is  closed  while  the  reactions  are  in  progress.  For  most  purposes, 
this  is  an  unnecessary  refinement. 

The  commutator  consists  of  a  brass  plate  (A,  in  Figure  i) 
which  has  seventy-five  insulated  contacts,  arranged  in  four  rows, 
with  a  contact  brush  (B)  running  in  a  groove  over  each  row. 


A.  Brass  plate,  overlaid  with  fiber  surface. 

B.  Contact  brush,  of  spring-brass  wire,  running  in  grooves, 

C.  Clamp  attaching  commutator  to  stem  of  typewriter. 

D.  Common  terminal  through  body  of  typewriter. 

E.  Block  of  fiber  bearing  the  brushes. 

F.  Clamp  attaching  block  to  carriage  of  typewriter. 

The  commutator  plate  is  attached  by  a  clamp  (C)  to  the  back 
stem  of  the  typewriter,  with  the  contact-surface  facing  away  from 
the  subject.  In  these  experiments,  only  Remington  machines 
were  employed;  for  use  on  other  kinds  of  typewriters,  the  form 
of  the  clamp  would  have  to  be  modified.  The  brushes  (D), 
made  of  spring-brass  wires,  are  fastened  through  an  insulated 
block  of  fibre  (E)  attached  by  a  clamp  (F)  to  the  carriage,  so 
that  with  each  stroke  of  a  key  the  brush-carrier  moves  one  step 
forward,  thus  shifting  the  circuit  to  a  new  line.  In  the  arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  contacts,  a  chance  order  is  followed,  except  that 
no  line  is  allowed  two  successive  stimuli;  and  an  equal  number 
of  contacts,  with  one  exception,  occurs  on  all  the  lines. 


343 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


The  wires  attached  to  the  four  brushes  lead  to  the  correspond¬ 
ing  terminals  upon  the  signal  apparatus,  and  each  circuit  is  then 
completed  through  a  battery,  a  rheostat,  and  the  base  of  the 
typewriter.  The  current  used  in  these  experiments  is  simply 
taken  from  the  6o-cycle,  no-volt  alternating  current  which  is 
the  source  of  illumination  in  the  university  buildings.  Beside 
being  always  available,  this  alternating  current,  when  placed 
directly  in  circuit  through  telephone  receivers,  gives  rise  to  a 
low,  steady  tone  of  pleasing  timbre  and  uniform  intensity.  The 
rheostat  is  introduced  in  order  to  cut  the  voltage  down  for  both 
visual  and  auditory  experiments.  A  switch  under  the  experi¬ 
menter’s  hand  enables  him  to  produce  the  first  stimulus  precisely 
when  desired. 

The  commutator  and  other  apparatus  used  in  the  following 
experiments  were  so  simple  and  reliable  that  they  operated  daily 
for  many  hours,  during  several  weeks,  without  irregularities. 
Other  commutator-standards,  giving  new  orders  of  the  seventy- 
five  stimuli,  could  readily  have  been  made,  and  substituted  in 
the  attachment  without  difficulty;  but,  for  tests  wherein  each  sub¬ 
ject  was  given  only  5  or  10  trials,  such  changes  in  order  were 
deemed  unnecessary. 

As  finally  developed,  after  many  preliminary  experiments1 

1  Five  kinds  of  stimuli  were  tried  out  and  finally  discarded  in  favor  of 
the  two  described  above.  Auditory-motor  tests  based  upon  intensity  differ¬ 
ences  were  made,  by  mounting  a  single  telephone  receiver  directly  in  front 
of  the  subject  and  so  wiring  the  commutator  brushes  as  to  produce  four 
tones  of  widely  different  intensities.  In  producing  these  tones,  the  primary 
circuit,  which  led  through  the  commutator,  was  interrupted  by  a  100  dv. 
fork.  The  brushes  were  wired  with  coils  of  varying  inductance,  so  that 
the  secondary  circuits  which  were  induced  and  conducted  through  the  re¬ 
ceiver,  produced  four  tones  differing  only  in  intensity.  The  subject  was 
instructed  to  respond  to  the  weakest  tone  by  pressing  the  key  farthest  to 
the  left;  to  the  next  in  intensity  he  pressed  the  second  key,  etc. 

The  experiments  with  pitch  differences  were  made  with  electric  bells  of 
widely  varying  pitch.  The  subject  simply  associated  the  four  tones,  from 
lowest  to  highest,  with  the  four  reaction  keys,  from  left  to  right.  Timbre 
differences  were  produced  by  varying  the  richness  of  the  tones  in  four 
uniform  bells,  telephone  receivers,  or  buzzers. 

The  auditory  stimuli  used  in  the  first  extensive  series  of  tests  were  noises 
produced  by  four  small  electric  buzzers  located  exactly  as  the  telephone  re- 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


349 


the  stimuli  for  these  experiments  were  of  only  two  kinds: 
auditory  and  visual,  both  demanding  discrimination  of  position 
for  the  reactions  of  the  subject.  The  signal  apparatus  for  the 
auditory  series  consisted  of  four  ordinary  telephone  receivers 
located  respectively  90°  left,  30°  left-front,  30°  right-front,  and 
90°  right,  in  the  horizontal  plane  of  the  ears,  each  at  a  distance 
of  45  cm.  from  the  center  of  the  subject’s  head.  “Confusion 
points”  in  localization  were  avoided  by  this  arrangement,  and 
very  little  difficulty  in  the  discrimination  of  the  source  of  sound 
was  ever  reported.  The  low,  even  tones  induced  by  the  alternat¬ 
ing  current  furnished  very  definite  sensory  stimulation  to  any 
subject  of  normal  acuity.  The  intensity  of  the  tones  was  such 
as  to  render  them  easily  audible  within  a  radius  of  four  meters. 

In  their  final  form,  the  visual  stimuli  consisted  of  four  or¬ 
dinary  candelabra  electric  lights,  mounted  side  by  side  directly 
in  front  of  the  subject’s  eyes,  in  a  horizontal  position.  The  four 
reaction  keys  were  then  naturally  associated  by  the  subject  with 
the  four  corresponding  lights,  in  order,  from  left  to  right.  The 
candelabra  globes  had  been  frosted;  and  when  mounted,  the 
distance  between  the  centers  of  the  two  outside  lights  was  12 
cm.  They  were  located  at  a  distance  of  two  meters  in  front  of  the 
subject,  and  a  large  black  background  eliminated  reflection  or 
other  distracting  factors.  By  these  arrangements,  accommoda¬ 
tion  and  convergence  were  easy  and  natural,  and  movements  of 
the  eyes  in  following  the  shifting  lights  were  minimal. 

Since  the  alternating  current  used  was  the  same  as  that  em¬ 
ployed  for  auditory  stimuli,  a  simple  switch  was  introduced,  by 

ceivers  described  above.  The  buzzers  were  padded  and  tightened  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  equalize  roughly  their  intensity. 

For  visual  stimuli,  a  wooden  screen  in  the  center  of  which  was  an  aperture 
1.3  cm.  in  diameter  was  set  just  above  the  typewriter,  facing  the  subject. 
Four  electric  magnets  were  so  screwed  to  the  reverse  side  of  this  screen, 
that  the  prong  attached  to  the  armature  of  each,  bearing  a  small  disc,  was 
drawn  before  the  aperture  whenever  the  circuit  was  closed;  when  the  circuit 
was  again  shifted,  the  particular  disc  withdrew,  to  be  succeeded  by  another. 
After  some  experiments  with  colors  and  other  designs,  for  use  on  the  four 
discs,  the  letter  E  in  four  positions  (  3/3 )  was  chosen.  They  were 
associated  in  that  order  with  the  four  keys. 


350 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


which  the  current  could  be  shifted  at  will  from  one  mode  of 
stimulus  to  the  other.  As  all  the  tests  were  given  by  daylight, 
and  the  lights  seemed  more  intense  on  dark  days,  the  resistance  of 
the  rheostat  was  varied  slightly  from  day  to  day.  Very  few 
subjects  ever  complained  of  eye-strain;  a  few  found  the  after¬ 
images  slightly  annoying. 

For  one  short  series  of  tests,  the  commutator  was  eliminated 
altogether,  and  the  method  suggested  by  Coover  and  Angell — 
attaching  a  strip  of  typewritten  digits  to  the  carriage  and  thus 
exposing  the  digits  successively  through  an  aperture  in  the  screen 
— was  followed.  The  digits  used  in  that  series  were  5,  6,  7, 
and  8. 

Three  general  considerations  favored  the  use  of  the  tones 
and  the  lights  as  stimuli:  the  great  ease  of  discrimination;  their 
reliability  for  long-continued,  uniform  work;  and  their  non¬ 
fatiguing  character.  The  sensory  discrimination  was  basic  and 
immediate;  the  association  with  movement  was  almost  equally 
natural. 

The  reaction  movement  consisted,  throughout,  of  pressing  the 
typewriter  keys — 5,  6,  7,  and  8 — with  the  fingers  which  were 
placed  over  them.  Two  groups  of  variables  were  here  involved, 
due  (1)  to  the  character  and  condition  of  the  typewriter,  and 
(2)  to  the  previously  acquired  skill,  or  the  lack  of  skill,  of  the 
subjects  in  typewriting.  Among  the  variables  of  the  first  class 
were  the  “make"  and  model  of  machine  used,  the  amplitude  of 
movement  of  the  keys,  the  amount  of  use  or  misuse  which  it 
had  undergone,  the  degree  of  lubrication,  and  the  tension  or 
“springiness’'  of  the  carriage-movement. 

There  was,  accordingly,  an  extensive  latent  time  in  the  suc¬ 
cessive  stimuli,  and  in  the  registering  of  the  reactions.  The 
greater  part  of  this  latent  time  was  due  to  the  mechanism  of  key 
and  carriage.  As  a  consequence,  the  reaction  times  were  not 
comparable  with  those  recorded  by  any  former  investigators  of 
complex  reaction  times.  But,  since  this  latent  time,  in  spite  of 
its  extent,  was  constant  and  uniform  throughout  any  series  of 
tests,  the  reaction  times  were  certainly  of  relative  value,  and 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


35i 


exhibited  the  individual  differences  in  those  times  with  great 
reliability. 

The  extent  of  previous  training  in  manipulating  typewriters 
was  also  considered.  Unskilled  subjects  were  coached  on  the 
proper  use  and  economy  of  energy  in  their  reactions,  since  some 
were  prone  to  waste  time  on  ponderous  movements,  while  others 
did  not  strike  the  keys  heavily  enough  to  record  the  reactions. 
The  subject  kept  all  four  fingers  constantly  in  touch  with  the 
surface  of  the  proper  keys,  so  that  time  would  not  be  consumed 
in  movements  to  establish  those  contacts  when  they  became 
necessary.  In  general,  however,  all  subjects,  even  twelve-year- 
old  children,  who  were  experimented  with,  found  the  reaction 
movements  simple  enough  to  liberate  their  attention  for  the 
work  as  a  whole. 

The  procedure  followed  in  giving  the  tests  was  directed  toward 
securing  the  subject’s  maximum  achievement  in  speed,  together 
with  reasonable  accuracy — not  more  than  five  errors  in  one  trial. 
When  the  subject  was  seated  comfortably  before  the  typewriter, 
in  a  position  free  from  awkwardness  or  strain,  he  was  told  to 
place  the  index  and  middle  fingers  of  both  hands  upon  the  four 
cloth-covered  keys.  Then  the  experimenter  pointed  to  the  lights 
(or  telephones,  if  the  test  was  auditory),  and  said:  “You  see 
these  four  lights.  When  this  first  light  comes  on,  press  this 
finger  (pointing)  ;  when  this  second  light  appears,  press  the  sec¬ 
ond  finger,”  and  so  forth. 

The  current  was  then  turned  on  and  the  subject  was  introduced 
to  the  task  by  reacting  successively  to  about  twenty-five  stimuli, 
the  experimenter  encouraging  him  and  watching  his  fingers  to 
verify  their  accuracy.  Then,  during  a  pause,  the  complete  in¬ 
structions  were  given  in  colloquial  language : 

“This  is  a  test  of  speed  and  accuracy.  Throw  every  effort  into  the  work 
so  as  to  make  the  very  best  time  that  you  possibly  can,  with  approximate 
freedom  from  error.  After  you  begin  a  line,  do  not  let  anything  stop  you  or 
confuse  you  even  for  a  fraction  of  a  second.  Time  counts. 

“Work  at  such  speed  that  you  will  not  make  more  than  five  errors  in  a  line. 
This  is  a  standard  of  certainty  which  should  determine  your  speed.  You 
can  fail  by  being  over-cautious  and  slow  or  by  being  reckless  and  fast. 

“Now  prepare  yourself  for  the  movements.  Be  on  the  alert  all  the  time, 
to  move.  Push  the  lights.  The  faster  you  push  them,  the  better  your 
record  will  be.” 


352 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


This  emphasis  on  a  ‘  motor”  form  of  attention  was  continued 
through  the  test.  At  the  end  of  the  practice  trial,  the  experi¬ 
menter  asked,  “Are  you  making  many  mistakes ?”  and  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  compare  the  record  with  the  key.  Complimenting  the 
subject  on  either  his  speed  or  his  accuracy,  as  the  case  might 
justify,  the  experimenter  said:  “Now  we  want  to  get  ten  rec¬ 
ords  from  you.'’  The  warning  “Ready,”  was  given  from  one  to 
two  seconds  before  each  trial  began.  The  stop-watch  in  the  left 
hand  was  started  simultaneously  with  the  turning  on  of  the  cur¬ 
rent  with  the  right  hand.  When  the  last  stimulus  of  the  trial 
appeared,  the  experimenter  directed  his  attention  to  it,  and 
stopped  his  watch  immediately  following  the  reaction  which 
extinguished  it. 

The  intervals  between  the  successive  trials  were  simply  long 
enough  to  permit  the  experimenter,  assisted,  perhaps,  by  the  sub¬ 
ject,  to  check  over  the  record  for  errors.  If  less  than  five  errors 
had  been  made,  the  subject  was  complimented;  if  the  trial  con¬ 
tained  more  than  five  errors,  he  was  advised  to  “cut  down  the 
mistakes  a  little  next  time.”  The  subject  was  kept  informed  of 
his  time  in  seconds  for  each  performance;  and  his  “best  record 
so  far,”  or  the  “highest  score  of  anybody  today,”  was  empha¬ 
sized.  A  competitive  attitude  and  an  ambition  to  “cut  the  time 
down  a  little  more”  were  encouraged.  The  experimenter,  how¬ 
ever,  constantly  sought  to  avoid  a  stereotyped,  or  “professional” 
habit  of  giving  encouragement. 

For  some  types  of  subjects,  this  continual  prodding  was  highly 
successful.  Many  persons  began  with  ease  and  composure,  by  as¬ 
suming  a  very  moderate  pace,  one  which  represented  a  fairly 
low  level  of  their  potential  rate.  Repeated  spurring,  with  the  in¬ 
centives  of  pride  and  competition,  simply  aroused  such  habitually 
low-geared  persons  to  keener  effort  and  higher  efficiency. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  subjects,  naturally  “high-strung”  or 
tense,  selected  an  optimum  speed — one  representing  that  rate  of 
performance  which  they  had  generally  found  most  successful. 
This  habitual  gait,  timed  in  accordance  with  natural  motor  capaci¬ 
ties  or  long  motor  experience,  could  not  be  broken  without  a 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


353 


serious  loss  of  efficiency.  Undue  pressure  simply  resulted  in 
their  “going  to  pieces,”  losing  the  coordinations,  making  long 
series  of  indiscriminate  responses,  or  pausing  in  complete  con¬ 
fusion.  Instead  of  “rising  to  the  occasion,”  they  were  “rattled” 
by  the  demand  for  unusual  self-control.  Accordingly,  some  cau¬ 
tion  was  exercised  in  the  use  of  suggestion. 

The  Effects  of  Practice  upon  P erf o nuance  in  the 
Test  of  Serial  Action 

In  order  to  determine  the  effects  of  practice  upon  performance 
in  serial  action,  three  groups  of  experiments,  involving  tests 
with  five  different  kinds  of  stimuli,  were  undertaken.  Since, 
during  each  of  these  practice  series,  no  substitution  or  change 
of  commutator  standards  was  made,  the  order  of  the  seventy- 
five  stimuli  remained  exactly  the  same  throughout.  Conse¬ 
quently  the  improvement  curve  includes  as  a  significant  factor  the 
gradual  acquisition  of  the  order  of  stimuli  and  reactions. 

In  addition  to  this  increasing  retention  of  the  sensory  and 
motor  sequence,  the  learning  process  involved  the  attainment  of 
“automatic  co-ordination.”  A  fast,  rhythmic  rate  of  reaction, 
economizing  both  time  and  energy,  was  built  up,  and  the  experi¬ 
menter  did  not  usually  interfere  with  this  steady  gait  even  when 
more  errors  than  the  instructions  permitted  were  left  in  its 
wake. 

Series  A. — The  first  of  these  experiments,  Series  A,  consisted 
of  an  intensive  investigation  by  Mr.  H.  R.  Fossler,  of  the  effects 
of  practice.  Each  subject — all  being  university  students — re¬ 
ported  every  third  day  for  a  considerable  period,  on  each  occa¬ 
sion  taking  first  a  set  of  five  trials  with  visual  stimuli,  then  a  set 
of  five  trials  with  auditory  stimuli,  and  alternating  thus  until 
three  sets  with  each  kind  of  stimulus  had  been  made,  resulting 
in  a  daily  total  of  thirty  trials.  Subject  A  was  thus  given  a 
total  of  190  trials  with  each  kind  of  stimulus,  and  his  practice 
period  involved  the  making  of  28,120  individual  reactions.  Sub¬ 
ject  B  totalled  130  trials  each  of  visual  and  auditory  reactions, 
with  19,240  individual  responses;  and  Subject  C  made  60  trials 
including  8880  reactions. 


354 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


Wean 


Fig.  2.  Practice  curves  of  subject  A  in  speed  and  accuracy. 
Fig.  3.  Practice  curves  of  subject  B  in  speed  and  accuracy. 


Fig.  4.  Practice  curves  of  subject  C  in  speed  and  accuracy. 

Fig.  5.  Practice  curves  of  speed  and  accuracy,  26  subjects. 

Figures  2,  3  and  4  indicate  the  progress  of  this  practice  series 
in  terms  of  mean  speed  in  each  set  of  five  trials.  A  steady  im¬ 
provement  in  speed  is  apparent  in  all  cases  from  the  first  set 
onward,  with  blit  few  hesitations  and  plateaus.  For  subject  A, 
the  mean  time  of  the  thirty-eighth  set  was  34.2%  faster  than 
that  of  the  first  set  in  the  auditory  series,  and  31%  faster  in 
the  visual  series.  Similarly,  the  final  record  of  Subject  B  was 
27%  faster  than  his  initial  set,  in  the  auditory,  and  32%  in  the 
visual  series. 

Inspection  of  the  curves  denoting  the  number  of  errors  reveals 
a  fairly  consistent  decline  in  accuracy  concomitant  with  the  in- 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


355 


crease  in  speed,  except  after  the  fourteenth  set  of  Subject  B, 
This  relationship  is  expressed  by  the  correlation  coefficient  r,  .87, 
p.e.,  .03  between  speed  (from  fast  to  slow)  and  the  number  of 
errors,  in  the  auditory  series,  and  r,  .77,  p.e.,  .05,  in  the  visual 
series,  of  Subject  A.  The  corresponding  coefficients  for  B  are 
negligible,  on  account  of  irregularity  in  procedure.  Subject  C 
agrees  with  Subject  A. 

It  was  found  that  relatively  “good  sets/'  as  well  as  “good 
days”  in  performance  with  visual  stimuli  were  generally  also 
“good”  with  the  auditory.  This  was  true  of  both  speed  and 
accuracy.  The  high  speeds  in  the  visual  series  were  usually 
followed  by  correspondingly  high  scores  in  the  auditory  series, 
this  correlation  between  mean  speed  in  the  visual  and  auditory  sets 
being  r,  .93,  p.e.,  .03  for  Subject  A,  and  r,  .74,  p.e.,  .08  for  Sub¬ 
ject  B.  The  corresponding  pairing  of  accuracy  in  the  visual  and 
auditory  sets  is  shown  by  the  coefficients  r,  .70,  p.e.,  .05  and  r, 
.90,  p.e.,  .03  respectively  for  Subjects  A  and  B,  while  Subject 
C,  whose  record  is  not  so  extensive,  also  supports  these  relation¬ 
ships. 

Series  B. — Twenty-six  students  in  the  Northwestern  Univer¬ 
sity  School  of  Music,  all  girls,  composed  the  second  group  of 
subjects  for  the  study  of  practice  in  serial  action.  This  investiga¬ 
tion  was  made  by  Dr.  E.  A.  Gaw.  On  each  of  five  days,  at  inter¬ 
vals  of  from  three  to  seven  days,  two  sets  of  tests  were  given 
to  each  subject,  the  first  set  consisting  of  five  trials  with  visual 
stimuli,  and  the  second  of  five  trials  with  auditory.  For  the 
former,  the  four  digits,  5,  6,  7,  8,  typewritten  in  chance  order  on 
a  strip  of  cardboard,  and  exposed,  one  at  a  time,  through  an 
aperture  in  a  screen  following  the  method  suggested  by  Coover 
and  Angell,  were  used.  The  auditory  stimuli  consisted  of  tones 
produced  by  telephone  receivers  as  previously  standardized. 

An  effort  was  made  to  control  the  number  of  errors  more 
completely  than  had  been  the  case  in  the  previous  experiment. 
At  the  beginning  of  each  day's  work,  each  subject  was  told  what 
her  average  record,  in  both  time  and  accuracy,  had  been  on  the 
previous  day.  If  the  average  number  of  errors  had  exceeded 
five,  the  subject  was  cautioned  on  the  following  day  to  be  more 


356 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


accurate.  If  she  had  been  painstakingly  accurate  at  the  expense 
of  speed,  she  was  urged  to  work  for  more  speed.  Figure  5 
shows  the  median  speed  of  the  entire  group  of  subjects,  with  both 
visual  and  auditory  stimuli,  for  each  day.  These  medians  are 
figured  from  the  means  of  the  individuals’  five  daily  visual,  and 
of  their  five  daily  auditory  trials.  A  similar  procedure  is  followed 
with  respect  to  the  errors. 

Pronounced  improvement  in  both  visual  and  auditory  series  is 
evident  during  the  entire  period,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  last 
day’s  speed  is  twenty-five  per  cent  faster  than  the  first  day’s,  in  the 
visual  series,  and  thirty-seven  per  cent  faster  in  the  auditory. 
The  subjects  thus  make  more  improvement  in  the  twenty-five 
trials  given,  than  did  the  subjects  in  Series  A  in  the  same  num¬ 
ber  of  trials;  but  the  latter  had  made  these  reactions  all  in  one 
day  rather  than  at  intervals  for  five  days. 

In  the  twenty- five  trials  given  (as  also  appeared  in  the  first 
part  of  the  previous  practice  series,  with  Subjects  A  and  C), 
accuracy  did  not  decrease  with  the  acceleration  of  speed  in  react¬ 
ing.  The  series  of  tests  was  not  extensive  enough  to  determine 
whether  or  not  this  uniform  degree  of  accuracy  had  become  a 
permanent  characteristic  of  the  subjects’  reactions. 

A  comparison  was  made  of  the  ranks  of  the  twenty-six  sub¬ 
jects  on  the  basis  of  speed  on  the  first  day,  and  then  on  the  basis 
of  mean  speed  for  all  five  days.  The  correlation  between  these 
ranks  was  r,  .88,  p.e.,  .03  in  the  visual  series,  and  r,  .89,  p.e.,  .03 
in  the  auditory,  thus  showing  that  the  first  day's  performance 
generally  gave  a  fair  index  of  the  potential  speed  of  the  subjects. 
The  correlation  between  rank  on  the  first  day  and  that  on  the 
last  day  was  r,  .76,  p.e.,  .07;  and  r,  .63,  p.e.,  .09,  respectively,  in 
the  visual  and  auditory  tests. 

The  ranks  of  the  subjects  on  the  basis  of  their  speed  in  reacting 
to  one  kind  of  stimuli  corresponded  only  roughly  with  their  ranks 
when  using  the  other  kind  of  stimuli.  This  correlation  between 
ranks  in  visual  and  auditory  scores  on  the  first  day  was  r,  .48, 
p.e.,  .11;  and  the  correlation  between  visual  and  auditory  rank¬ 
ings  based  on  the  total  achievement  of  all  days  was  r,  .52,  p.e.,  .11. 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


357 


Series  C. — The  third  series  of  practice  tests  was  given  to  six 
students,  all  men,  each  of  whom  was  given  ten  trials  on  each  of 
seven  successive  days,  reacting  to  the  candelabra  lights  as  stimuli. 
On  every  day,  each  subject  was  encouraged  to  try  to  surpass  not 
only  his  own  best  record,  but  also  the  record  of  the  fastest  man. 
As  the  tests  progressed,  the  number  of  errors  increased,  and 
in  spite  of  repeated  cautioning,  tended  to  gain  in  number  from 
day  to  day.  In  the  later  days  of  the  series,  several  subjects  re¬ 
marked  that  the  errors  seem  bound  to  come,  whether  they  tried  to 
slow  up  and  be  careful,  or  not. 

The  mean  time  for  the  ten  trials  of  each  subject  on  each  of 
the  seven  days  is  shown  in  Figure  6.  From  this  figure  it  is  seen 


B 
4 

1 

2 

1 
0 

Fig.  6.  Speed  and  variability  in  speed  of  six  subjects  on  seven  days.  Fig¬ 
ures  at  left,  time  in  seconds;  at  right,  mean  variation  in  seconds;  at  bottom, 
days. 

that:  (i)  the  greatest  diversity  of  performance  appears  on  the 
first  day;  (2)  progress  is  most  noticeable  during  the  first  three 
days  or  thirty  trials,  after  which  it  becomes  very  gradual;  (3) 
with  one  exception  subjects  tend  to  maintain  their  relative  posi¬ 
tions  on  successive  days.2 

2  Only  one  subject,  N,  shifts  his  position.  This  man  evinced  a  remarkable 


353 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


The  mean  of  the  first  day’s  record  is  a  more  reliable  index  of 
the  potential  performance  of  an  individual  than  is  his  “best 
time,’’  since  the  most  erratic  subjects  may  show  remarkable 
spurts  of  speed. 

There  is  no  relation  discoverable  between  speed  on  the  first 
day  and  the  per  cent  of  improvement  in  seven  days. 

On  the  first  day,  wide  individual  differences  in  variability  ap¬ 
pear;  thereafter,  all  subjects  seem  to  cling  very  closely  to  their 
mean  performances,  and  those  differences  are  not  so  evident. 

The  amount  of  improvement  made  on  each  day,  and  also  the 
relative  speed  of  the  ten  trials  of  each  day,  are  indicated  in 
Fig.  7.  Increase  in  speed  is  very  slight  after  the  third  day.  Only 


TRIALS 

Fig.  7 a.  Mean  time  of  all  subjects  in  each  of  ten  trials  on  all  days. 

ability  for  learning  the  order  of  the  stimuli.  By  the  second  day,  he  had 
acquired  the  sequence  of  several  “patches”  of  stimuli  and  would  run  these 
off,  each  immediately  following  its  own  stimulus,  just  as  smoothly  and  regu¬ 
larly  as  a  pianist  playing  a  familiar  musical  number,  but  guiding  himself 
by  the  notes.  On  each  successive  day,  this  subject  extended  the  range  of 
these  memorized  sections,  and  by  virtue  of  this  coup,  rose  from  the  rank  of 
slowest  to  that  of  fastest.  The  other  subjects  did  not  carry  the  memorizing 
of  sequence  to  so  high  a  degree  of  success. 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


359 


Fig.  7b.  Mean  number  of  errors  for  all  subjects  in  each  of  ten  trials  on 

all  days. 


on  the  first  and  second  days  does  any  “warming  up”  seem  to 
occur  during  the  day’s  ten  trials,  and  from  the  7.6  seconds  of 
total  improvement  on  the  first  day  to  2.5  seconds  on  the  second 
day,  a  great  diminution  in  gain  is  evident.  No  consistent  crest  of 
good  performance,  and  no  particular  “breaking  point”  in  the  ten 
trials,  can  be  found  on  any  day. 

As  the  subject  becomes  more  familiar  with  the  test,  he  loses 
caution  and  tends  to  keep  up  a  fast,  automatic  gait,  at  the  expense 
of  accuracy.  However,  with  one  exception,  each  subject  tends 
to  maintain  his  relative  accuracy  in  the  performances  of  subse¬ 
quent  days.  (See  Fig.  8b). 

While  all  the  subjects  become  less  accurate  with  increase  of 
speed,  it  cannot  be  said  that  those  who  accelerate  most  in  speed 
degenerate  most  in  accuracy.  Thus,  the  subject  making  the  most 
gain  in  speed  (N)  declines  the  least  in  accuracy;  while  two  other 
subjects  (M  and  T)  whose  time  records  show  high  improvement, 
degenerate  greatly  in  accuracy.  Neither  does  the  subject  who 


36c 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


Fig.  8a.  Speed  and  accuracy  of  six  subjects  combined,  for  seven  days. 
Fig.  8b.  Number  of  errors  of  six  subjects  for  seven  days. 


accelerates  least  (R)  distinguish  himself  for  accuracy.  At  any 
stage  following  the  first  day,  just  as  on  the  first  day  itself,  sub¬ 
jects  are  classified  as  fast  and  accurate,  slow  and  accurate,  fast 
and  inaccurate,  or  slow  and  inaccurate.  The  individual  tends  to 
cling  to  his  relative  position,  even  during  an  extended  period  of 
practice. 

“Hard”  and  “easy”  places  within  the  seventy-five  reactions  of 
each  trial  were  very  evident  throughout  the  tests,  both  from  the 
pauses  and  smooth  flows  in  rhythm  of  reactions,  and  from  the 
grouping  of  the  errors  in  certain  places  within  each  row  of  the 
record.  Investigation  proved  that  these  particular  regions  tended 
to  appear  uniformly  among  all  the  subjects,  and  tended  to  per¬ 
sist  throughout  practice. 

The  correlation  between  the  distribution  of  errors  on  the  first 
day,  for  all  subjects,  and  on  the  second  day,  was  r,  .61,  p.e.  .05. 
The  same  distribution  showed  a  correlation  of  r,  .61,  p.e.  .05 
with  that  of  the  seventh  day ;  and  of  r,  .68,  p.e.  .04  with  that  of 
the  total  of  all  days. 

The  distribution  of  errors  in  relation  to  the  four  respective 
fingers  involved  in  committing  them  brings  out  the  following 
results:  (1)  There  is  greater  inaccuracy  in  the  reactions  of 
the  two  index  fingers,  with  only  one  exception;  (2)  of  the  two 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


361 


index  fingers,  the  one  belonging  to  the  right  hand  is  generally  the 
less  accurate;  (3)  individual  differences,  while  apparent  in  the 
errors  committed  by  the  index  fingers,  are  much  more  pronounced 
with  respect  to  the  two  extreme  fingers.  The  relative  accuracy 
of  right  hand  and  left  hand  fingers  is  subject  to  individual  dif¬ 
ferences. 

The  general  conclusions  derived  from  these  experiments  are, 
that  under  the  conditions  obtaining, 

(1)  Whatever  kind  of  stimulus  be  used,  the  speed  of  serial 
action  increases  with  practice,  rapidly  during  the  first  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  trials,  and  then  slowly  for  an  indefinite  period. 
Increase  in  speed  is  accompanied  by  a  decrease  in  the  variability 
of  speed,  as  the  subject  strikes  his  “gait.”  Improvement  during 
the  day’s  trials,  or  “warming  up,”  appears  chiefly  on  the  first  day. 
When  practice  series  with  two  kinds  of  stimuli  are  run  in  paral¬ 
lel,  the  characteristic  rises,  drops  and  plateaus  in  speed  of  one 
series  are  usually  accompanied  by  similar  changes  in  the  other. 

(2)  Unless  a  rigid  habit  of  accuracy  is  built  up  from  the 
initial  trial,  accuracy  degenerates  as  speed  accelerates.  But  a 
habit  of  accuracy  does  not  hamper  the  rise  in  speed,  if  developed 
consistently.  Each  day’s  performance  is  most  accurate  at  first 
and  least  accurate  at  the  end.  Variability  in  errors  does  not 
generally  decrease  with  practice.  “Hard”  and  “easy”  places,  and 
tendencies  of  certain  fingers  to  commit  a  disproportionate  number 
of  errors,  persist  through  practice. 

(3)  Individual  differences  in  speed  and  accuracy  do  not  dis¬ 
appear  with  practice.  The  diversity  of  performance  of  subjects 
is  greatest  at  first  and  tends  to  decrease.  But  subjects  usually 
maintain  their  relative  positions  with  respect  to  each  other,  in  both 
speed  and  accuracy,  throughout  a  practice  period. 

(4)  Five  trials  are  generally  sufficient  to  indicate  the  relative 
capacity  of  subjects  for  speed  and  accuracy  in  this  test;  but  the 
high  practice  curve  renders  ten  trials  more  reliable. 


362 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


Distributions  of  the  Groups  Tested, 

According  to  Speed  and  Accuracy 

Together  with  a  number  of  other  tests,  the  serial  action  test 
was  given  to  four  classes  of  persons:  (i)  students,  (2)  army 
recruits,  (3)  musicians,  and  (4)  stenographers. 

Series  I,  Students. — The  first  group  tested  consisted  of  152 
university  sophomores,  100  men  and  52  women.  In  January, 
1918,  these  were  each  given  the  series  of  motor  tests  described  by 
Seashore  (63,  Chap.  IX).  For  the  serial  action  test,  auditory 
stimuli,  consisting  of  electric  buzzers,  were  used. 

The  scores  for  speed  in  serial  action  (Fig.  9)  showed  a  wide 
range — from  37  to  70  seconds,  with  the  median  at  56.4  seconds. 
Women  did  not,  as  a  group,  quite  equal  the  men  in  speed,  and 
they  also  tended  to  make  more  errors  (Fig.  10). 

Series  II,  Army  Recruits. — The  visual  form  of  serial  action 
(E  symbols)  test  was  one  of  several  tests  given  to  miscellaneous 
recruits  applying  for  admission  to  the  army  school  in  radio- 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


363 


telegraphy  at  the  University  of  Iowa  during  the  summer  of  1918. 

A.  Forty-three  recruits  arrived  and  were  tested  early  in  June, 
1918;  nine  were  rejected  on  the  basis  of  poor  performance  in 
this  and  other  tests.  This  group  showed  wide  diversity  in  ability, 
the  scores  in  serial  action  ranging  from  52  seconds  to  over  100 
seconds,  with  the  median  at  73  seconds.  The  distribution  is  the 
most  irregular  of  any  group.  Errors  also  showed  great  irregu¬ 
larity. 

B.  In  August,  sixty  men  appeared  for  the  tests,  thirty-two  of 
whom  were  admitted  to  the  course.  The  median  speed  in  visual 
serial  action  was  63.9  seconds,  almost  10  seconds  faster  than  the 
previous  group.  The  range  was  relatively  small,  and  in  accuracy 
a  good  record  was  attained. 

C.  Seventy  recruits  were  tested  for  admission  to  the  training 
course  in  October.  Auditory  serial  action,  with  telephones,  was 
used.  The  range  in  serial  action  scores  is  more  narrow  than  in 
previous  groups,  and  the  median  (60.9)  shows  greater  speed. 
However,  the  number  of  errors  is  greater  than  in  the  preceding 


36  4 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


group.  Selection  in  this  group  was  prevented  by  the  influenza 
epidemic. 

Series  III,  Musicians. — The  serial  action  test  in  both  auditory 
(with  telephones)  and  visual  forms  was  one  of  the  measures 
used  by  Dr.  E.  A.  Gaw  in  making  a  survey  of  musical  talent  in 
the  Northwestern  University  School  of  Music,  during  December, 
1918.  Twenty-six  women,  all  musicians  of  considerable  train¬ 
ing,  composed  this  group.  For  visual  serial  action,  a  simple  let¬ 
ter  arrangement,  similar  to  that  described  by  Coover  and  Angell 
(20)  was  used.  Each  subject  received,  first,  five  trials  with 
visual  and  then  five  trials  with  auditory  stimuli.  The  speed  in  the 
visual  series  (median,  51.5  seconds)  was  fast,  but  in  the  auditory 
series  was  slow  (median,  64.8).  The  range  was  wide,  and  in  the 
number  of  errors  committed  these  subjects  exceeded  any  others 
tested. 

Series  IV,  Music  Students. — Sixty-three  students  in  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Iowa  School  of  Music,  all  women,  were  given  the 
serial  action  test,  in  1920,  with  electric  lights  as  the  stimuli.  The 
scores  show  very  short  reaction-times,  a  narrow  range,  and  few 
errors. 

Series  V,  Stenographers. — Sixty-one  students  in  the  typewrit¬ 
ing  courses  of  the  Cedar  Falls  (Iowa)  High  School  and  of  the 
Iowa  Teachers  College  were  given  the  same  test  by  Mr.  Ben  W. 
Robinson  in  1920.  The  subjects  were  mostly  women,  varying 
considerably  in  age  and  education.  The  resulting  scores  ranked 
this  group  next  to  those  in  Series  IV  in  speed,  while  the  number 
of  errors  was  greater. 

Series  VI,  Stenographers. — One  hundred  seventy-six  students 
taking  courses  in  typewriting  at  the  three  Des  Moines  high  schools 
were  also  tested  by  Mr.  Robinson.  Only  nine  of  the  subjects  were 
men.  This  group  stands  between  those  of  Series  IV  and  V,  in 
speed,  and  in  accuracy  falls  below  them  both. 

General  Comparisons. —  (1)  No  consistent  sex  differences  are 
shown,  in  either  speed  or  accuracy. 

(2)  As  is  shown  in  Fig.  11,  giving  the  median  time  for  each 
of  five  trials,  electric  lights  produce  the  quickest  reactions,  digits 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


3<>5 


are  second  (for  educated  subjects),  tones  are  third  and  visual 
symbols  (E)  are  fourth.  The  nature  of  the  stimulus  does  not 
seem  decidedly  to  affect  accuracy,  but  there  is  slightly  greater  ac¬ 
curacy  in  the  visual  tests  (Fig.  12). 


JtCOfK i$ 


- S«ries  Hj  A :  43  rr>«n 

w— Scries  IT,  3-  60  wen 

—  Senes  H,C.:  Jo  wen 

—  o — Series  26  Women 

.  ■  Series  HI, women 

—  . .  Ser»«s  S’,  '  63  Women 


'Trials 

Fig.  ii.  Median  scores  in  each  of  five  trials  of  various  groups. 

Fig.  12.  Median  number  of  errors  in  each  of  five  trials  of  various  groups. 


(3)  The  medians  show  improvement  in  speed  with  each  suc¬ 
cessive  trial.  The  amount  of  this  improvement  is  most  marked 
under  those  conditions  which  cause  slow  reactions.  The  number 
of  errors  tends  to  increase  during  the  test,  but  not  consistently. 

The  Distribution  of  Errors  in  Relation  to  the 
Sequence  of  Stimuli 

The  order  or  sequence  in  which  the  stimuli  come  has  consider¬ 
able  significance  in  the  location  of  errors.  Certain  regions  in 
the  succession  of  stimuli  are  “easy,”  calling  out  smooth  responses, 
while  other  places  are  “hard,”  causing  errors,  pauses  and  con¬ 
fusion. 

The  number  of  errors  is  found  to  depend  upon  the  probability 
of  the  appearance  of  each  stimulus;  that  is,  the  subject  is  always 
expecting  the  stimulus'  which  has  been  absent  the  longest,  and 
expecting  least  the  one  which  was  most  recent.  The  results  are 


366 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


as  follows :  The  stimulus  which  has  been  absent  the  longest 
has  only  36  per  cent  of  the  errors,  although  its  proportional  share 
would  be  57.5  per  cent.  The  stimulus  which  has  been  absent 
next  to  the  longest,  has  30  per  cent  of  the  errors,  while  its  share 
would  be  25.2  per  cent.  The  most  recent  stimulus  has  34  per 
cent  of  the  errors,  while  its  proportional  share  would  be  only 
17.3  per  cent.  Thus  the  least  expected  stimulus  causes  three 
times  as  many  errors,  proportionally,  as  the  most  expected 
stimulus. 

Other  causes  of  errors  in  certain  regions  are  the  maintaining 
of  symmetrical  reactions  after  the  stimuli  have  ceased  to  come 
according  to  symmetrical  order,  and  the  “spreading”  of  mis¬ 
takes  over  successive  reactions. 

Figure  13  represents  the  distribution  of  2547  errors  in  420 
trials  with  electric  lights  as  stimuli,  and  of  225 7  errors  in  426 
trials  with  tones  from  telephones  as  stimuli,  the  order  of  sequence 
being  identical  in  the  two  series.  The  subjects  were  different. 
The  “hard”  places  in  the  visual  tests  are  also  “hard”  in  the 
auditory.  In  fact,  the  correlation  between  the  two  arrays  of  er¬ 
rors  is  r,  .62,  p.e.,  .05. 

This  comparison  of  visual  and  auditory  stimuli  shows  that, 
while  the  index  fingers  in  both  cases  cause  disproportionally  many 
errors,  this  relation  is  much  more  pronounced  in  the  visual  tests. 
In  the  latter,  the  index  fingers  make  two-thirds  of  the  mistakes. 
Therefore,  the  inaccuracy  of  the  index  finger  is  due  largely  to  the 
fact  that  discrimination  of  position  is  not  so  easy  in  the  middle 
pair  as  in  the  extremes.  That  is,  a  radical  shift  of  position  by 
the  visual  stimulus  is  more  readily  discriminated  than  is  a  less 
extensive  shift  of  the  visual  stimulus.  In  the  auditory  tests,  wide 
separation  of  all  four  stimuli  caused  the  moderate  shifts  to  be 
more  readily  discriminated  than  in  the  visual  tests. 

The  Relation  of  Serial  Action  to  Other  Measures  Used 

The  relation  of  speed  to  accuracy  and  variability. — The  results 
of  correlating3  the  mean  time  and  mean  error  records  of  the 

3  Throughout  this  study,  in  figuring  correlation  coefficients,  the  Pearson 
products-moments  formula  has  been  followed,  except  when  the  number  of 


Ho.  of 

•rrore 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


367 


tO  CM  CM  AiH  *H  O  O  O  1 
9-i  W-*  r-4  r-i  t~*  r-4  f~4  r-i 


1  Q*  00  CD  00  ^  \D 


O  vO  CM  CD  ^  O  'O  CM©  Tf  o  vO  W  ©  ^  o 
-  ww  HH 


Fig.  13.  Distribution  of  errors  according  to  sequence  of  seventy-five  successive  stimuli. 


368 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


subjects,  are  shown  in  Table  i.  There  is  no  consistent  relation¬ 
ship  between  mean  speed  and  mean  accuracy;  the  three  largest 
groups  of  subjects  fail  to  show  definite  correlation.  But  positive 
correlations  appear  in  some  of  the  smaller  groups  and  these  are 
the  groups  in  which  the  most  caution  was  observed  in  keeping 
errors  at  a  minimum. 

All  subjects  could  be  classified  on  the  basis  of  their  perform¬ 
ance,  into  four  kinds,  or  types:  (i)  quick-accurate,  (2)  quick- 
inaccurate,  (3)  slow-accurate,  and  (4)  slow  inaccurate.  There 
were,  however,  some  marginal  cases  which  did  not  belong 
definitely  in  any  one  class. 

The  relation  between  a  subject’s  speed,  from  his  first  to  his 
last  trial,  and  his  accuracy,  is  not  consistent.  Usually,  his  first 
trial  is  the  slowest  and  most  accurate,  but  speed  does  not  develop 
at  a  consistent  expense  in  accuracy.  As  a  result,  no  constant 
could  be  secured  which  would  enable  the  experimenter  to  reduce 
errors  to  a  time  basis. 

Several  methods  of  evaluating  errors  so  as  to  secure  a  single 
score,  in  terms  of  time,  were  tried  out.  One  of  these  gave  addi¬ 
tional  credit  to  the  time  scores  of  subjects  who  were  more  ac¬ 
curate  than  the  median,  and  deducted  a  percentage  from  those 
who  were  less  accurate  than  the  median.  This  method  was  too 
complex  for  general  use. 

Another  weighting  plan  for  errors  was  based  on  this  formula : 

Total  time  for  all  trials 

Score  =  - 7— - ; - 

Total  no.  of  reactions  minus  no.  of  errors 

The  scoring  method  suggested  by  Link  (47)  was  also  tried 
out.  However,  since  the  subject  who  made  more  errors  did  not 
thereby  secure  any  clear  advantages  in  speed,  over  his  more 
accurate  companions,  and  since  the  errors  were  generally  kept 
down  to  a  fairly  uniform  level,  speed  alone  was  adopted  for  use 
as  the  serial  action  index. 

Speed  and  mean  variation  in  speed  showed  a  considerable 
negative  correlation  (e.g.,  r,  .62,  p.e.,  .05  in  the  70  cases  of  Series 

cases  was  less  than  30.  There  the  Spearman  “foot-rule”  was  used  and 
designated  as  R. 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


369 


II,  C).  This  meant  simply  that  the  subjects  who  worked  the 
fastest  also  showed  the  least  variability. 


TABLE  I.  Correlation  of  mean  speed  and  mean  accuracy 
(Speed  from  fast  to  slow,  and  errors  inversely  ranked) 
Series  I  .  151  cases  .  r,  .00 


Series  II,  A  .  43 

Series  II,  B  .  60 

Series  II,  C  .  70 

Series  III,  A  .  26 

Series  III,  B  .  26 

Series  IV  .  63 

Series  V  .  61 

Series  VI  .  174 


u 

.  r, 

48, 

p.e., 

.08 

a 

.  r, 

.36, 

p.e., 

.07 

a 

.  r, 

.20, 

p.e., 

.08 

u 

.  r, 

.3L 

p.e., 

.11 

u 

.  r, 

.12, 

p.e., 

.12 

u 

.  r, 

•32, 

p.e., 

.07 

a 

.  r, 

.13, 

p.e., 

.08 

a 

.  r, 

.13, 

p.e., 

•05 

The  Relation  of  Serial  Action  to  Other  Motor  Tests 

As  is  evident  from  Table  II,  a  low  positive  correlation  obtains 
between  speed  in  serial  action  and  the  time  of  simple  reaction  to 
sound;  and  a  similar  relation  appears  with  reaction  after  dis¬ 
crimination  and  choice. 

TABLE  II.  Correlation  (r)  zznth  simple  reaction  to  sound 

Series  I  151  cases  r,  .29,  p.e.,  .05 

Series  III,  B  .  25  “  r,  .46,  p.e.,  .09 

Correlation  ( r )  with  complex  reactions  (to  sound) 

Series  I  150  cases  r,  .35,  p.e.,  .05 

Series  III,  A  .  26  “  r,  .37,  p.e.,  .10 

Series  III,  B  .  26  “  r,  .37,  p.e.,  .10 

The  correlation  of  speed  in  serial  action  and  precision  of  move¬ 
ment,  as  measured  by  the  target  test,  is  negligible.  This  fact 
appears  in  the  tests  of  both  Series  I  and  II,  A,  and  B.  Further¬ 
more,  no  correlation  exists  between  accuracy  in  serial  action  and 
accuracy  in  the  precision  test.  The  performance  of  a  wrong 
reaction  in  serial  action  is  quite  unlike  inability  to  make  a  fine, 
steady  adjustment  in  repeated  movements. 

Strength  of  movement,  as  indicated  by  the  best  of  three  trials 
with  the  Smedley  dynamometer,  was  also  compared  with  serial 
action  records  in  the  group  of  150  students.  The  coefficient  was 
r,  .28,  p.e.,  .05,  indicating  a  possible  low  positive  correlation. 

Motility,  measured  by  the  maximum  rate  of  tapping,  shows  a 
low  positive  correlation  with  speed  in  serial  action,  as  is  evident 
in  Table  III. 


370 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


Series  I 
Series  II, 
Series  V 
Series  VI 


TABLE  III. 


A 


Correlation  ( r )  with  Motility  Test 


151 

cases  . 

.  B 

•25, 

p.e., 

.05 

43 

a 

.  r, 

.24, 

p.e., 

.10 

61 

44 

.27, 

p.e., 

07 

174 

44 

.23, 

p.e., 

.05 

That  these  various  low  correlations  point  to  a  tendency  of  serial 
action  to  agree  with  the  other  motor  tests  in  the  classifying  of 
subjects,  is  illustrated  by  a  comparison  of  grades  based  on  quintile 
standing.  The  forty-three  recruits  in  Series  II,  A,  were  thus 
graded  from  very  superior  to  very  inferior  (A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E) 
in  the  motility  and  serial  action  tests.  Of  these  subjects : 


13  maintain  the  same  rank  in  both  tests, 

20  differ  one  grade  in  rank. 

8  differ  two  grades  in  rank,  and 

2  differ  three  grades  in  rank.  , 

Similarly  in  tapping  for  accuracy  (a  test  in  which  the  exam¬ 
iner  called  out  rapidly  in  succession  the  number  of  times  which 
the  subject  was  to  tap), 

16  have  the  same  rank  as  in  serial  action, 

17  differ  one  grade  in  rank, 

8  differ  two  grades  in  rank,  and 

2  differ  three  grades  in  rank. 

A  similarly  rough  corespondence  occurs  with  the  other  tests 
showing  low  correlations  with  speed  in  serial  action. 

The  relation  of  serial  action  to  code  tests. — A  low  positive  cor¬ 
relation  between  speed  in  serial  action  and  scores  in  the  two  code 
tests  was  generally  found.  These  code  tests,  the  “Civil  War*’ 
code  as  described  by  Terman,  and  the  “Russian”  tapping  code 
(in  which  the  subject  is  given  a  scheme  for  transliterating  the 
alphabet  into  a  code  of  taps,  and  then  must  interpret  the  words 
which  are  tapped  by  the  experimenter)  were  given  to  the  three 
groups  of  army  recruits. 


TABLE  IV.  Correlation  (r)  with  the  Civil  War  code 

Series  II,  A  .  43  cases  r,  .43,  p.e.,  .09 

Series  II,  B  .  32  “  r,  .34,  p.e.,  .11 

Series  II,  C  .  67  “  r,  .20,  p.e.,  .08 


TABLE  V.  Correlation  (r)  with  the  Russian  tapping  code 

Series  II,  A  .  43  cases  . . .  r,  .30,  p.e.,  .10 

Series  II,  C .  69  “  .  r,  .44,  p.e.,  .07 

These  low  correlations  indicate  a  rough  tendency  on  the  part  of 

the  tests  to  agree  in  their  ratings  of  subjects.  In  terms  of  grades, 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


37 1 


the  relationship  is  shown  in  the  following  comparison  of  scores 
made  by  forty-three  recruits  in  the  “Civil  War”  code  and  serial 
action : 

17  maintain  the  same  rank  in  the  two  tests, 

15  differ  one  grade  in  rank, 

8  differ  two  grades  in  rank, 

3  differ  three  grades  in  rank. 

The  relation  of  serial  action  to  the  Vasey  vocabulary  test. — No 
consistent  relationship  between  serial  action  and  the  Vasey  vocab¬ 
ulary  test  was  found.  The  largest  group  of  subjects  showed  no 
definite  correspondence,  while  the  two  smaller  groups  indicate  a 
low  correlation. 


TABLE  VI.  Correlation  (r)  with  Vasey  vocabulary  test 


Series  II,  C  . 

.  r, 

•3L 

p.e., 

.07 

-  Series  V  . 

.  61  “  . 

.  r. 

•35, 

.14, 

p.e., 

p.e. 

q  q 

Series  VI  . 

.  174  “  . 

.  r, 

The  relation  of  serial  action  to  army  Alpha  intelligence  test. — 
Here,  again,  the  largest  and  most  representative  group  does  not 
show  any  definite  relation  between  the  tests  compared.  The 
smallest  group,  however,  gives  a  fair  correlation.  The  evidence 
is  therefore  inconclusive,  although — considering  the  code  and  the 
vocabulary  tests,  as  well  as  the  Alpha  test — the  data  point  to  a 
slight  dependence  of  score  in  serial  action  upon  intelligence. 

TABLE  VII.  Correlation  (r)  with  Alpha  intelligence  test 

Series  IV  .  41  cases  r,  .51,  p.e.,  .08 

Series  V  .  61  “  r,  .20,  p.e.,  .08 

Series  VI  .  174  “  r,  .14,  p.e.,  .05 

The  serial  action  test  generally  stands  in  a  middle  position 
among  the  different  tests  used ;  that  is,  it  agrees  roughly  with  them 
in  its  classifications.  Thus  the  nine  recruits  of  the  June  group 
who  were  rejected  on  account  of  low  standing  in  the  test  (each 
given  equal  weight),  ranked  as  follows  in  serial  action:  1,  B;  2, 
C;  3,  D;  and  3,  E.  In  the  August  group,  a  score  of  67  in  serial 
action  roughly  divides  the  successful  from  the  unsuccessful  ap¬ 
plicants. 

The  serial  action  test  picked  out,  with  considerable  certainty, 
nervous,  high-strung  subjects.  This  type  appears  at  the  extremely 
slow  or  inaccurate  ends  of  the  distribution  curves. 


372 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


Application  to  Vocational  Guidance  and  Selection 

In  this  investigation,  serial  action  was  studied  in  its  relation¬ 
ship  with  three  psycho-motor  activities  which  have  vocational 
significance:  musical  action,  telegraphy  and  typewriting.  Great 
difficulty  was  experienced,  however,  in  securing  satisfactory 
criteria  of  ability  or  of  success  in  these  activities. 

Musical  action. — Such  difficulties  as  the  following  must  be 
considered  in  judging  the  test  by  means  of  criteria  in  music. 
Professors'  ratings  of  their  pupils  are  subject  to  those  very  in¬ 
dividual  biases  and  fallacies  which  it  is  the  purpose  of  objective 
tests  to  eliminate.  Each  instructor  has  only  a  small  number  of 
students  to  rate,  and  there  is  no  way  of  equating  the  instructors’ 
grades  so  that  they  will  be  mutually  comparable. 

Again,  some  students  enter  the  conservatory  already  drilled 
and  polished  by  musical  training,  while  others  are  almost  un¬ 
skilled  novices.  Some  spend  the  entire  day  upon  musical  efforts, 
and  others  only  occasional  hours. 

The  relative  performance  in  serial  action,  of  persons  trained 

Percent _ 


► 

- 

ho  Have 
(36  < 
ifc©  save 
(62  t 

\ 

Bad  atiai 
ases) 

Not  Had 
ases) 

sal  Ira4x 

:u8io&i  * 

ing 

raising 

. 

Sj 

// 

7 

-- 

/ 

t  J 

t  A 

»  M 
/  I 
/  / 

■ 

\ 

T 

/ 

* 

// 

r 

• 

» 

70  67  64  61  68  68  62  49  46  43  40 

MEAN  SCORES  IN  SECONDS 

Fig.  14.  Scores  in  serial  action  of  men  who  have  had  musical  training 

and  men  who  have  not. 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


373 


and  untrained  in  musical  performance  was  studied.  Figure  14 
shows  the  percentage  distributions,  in  speed  of  36  university  men 
who  have  had  musical  training  and  of  62  men  who  have  had  none. 
The  two  groups  are  almost  identical  in  test  scores.  This  fact 
does  not  argue  against  the  value  of  the  test  for  rating  musical 
talent,  since  “surveys  of  public  schools  show  clearly  that  very 
little  correlation  exists  between  the  possession  of  musical  talent 
and  the  selection  of  children  for  musical  education”  (63,  p.  4). 
The  data  here  indicate  that  training  in  musical  performance  does 
not,  as  such,  confer  any  advantage  upon  any  subjects  taking  the 
test.  Native  motor  capacities,  more  than  acquired  refinements 
of  action,  determine  performance  in  the  test. 

Correlations  were  first  sought  with  standard  tests  of  musical 
talent.  The  visual  serial  action  test  was  found  to  correlate  some¬ 
what  with  the  test  of  rhythmic  action,  the  coefficients  for  the 
Northwestern  and  the  Iowa  University  groups  being  r,  .41,  p.e., 
.12  and  r,  .50,  p.e.,  .08,  respectively. 

The  test  was  then  studied  in  relation  to  the  ratings  which, 
entirely  independently  of  the  motor  tests,  were  given  to  their 
students  by  the  instructors  in  music  at  Northwestern  University, 
under  the  following  heads :  Application,  Achievement,  Ambition, 
Reading  Ability,  Memorizing  Ability,  Ear  Training  in  Class,  and 
Sight-Singing  in  Class.  Since  it  was  evident  that  an  estimate 
of  all-around  attainment,  rather  than  of  specific  elements  in  at¬ 
tainment,  lay  at  the  bottom  of  these  various  ratings,  the  sum 
of  each  individual’s  ratings  was  accepted  as  the  best  available 
criterion  of  musical  performance.  Similarly,  the  grades  of  the 
music  subjects  at  Iowa  University,  given  by  the  instructors, 
under  the  heads  of  Sight-Singing,  Control  of  Rhythm,  Applica¬ 
tion  and  Progress,  were  added  together  to  furnish  a  criterion. 
The  Northwestern  University  ratings  furnished  correlations  of 
r,  .52,  p.e.,  .11  with  visual  serial  action,  and  r,  .35,  p.e.,  .13  with 
auditory  serial  action.  In  the  Iowa  University  group,  the  cor¬ 
relation  was  r,  .26,  p.e.,  .10.  A  more  reliable  comparison  might 
be  made  by  classifying  the  students  simply  as  either  “above 
average”  or  “below  average”  in  general  attainment.  In  Table  I 
is  found  the  result  of  comparison  on  this  basis. 


374 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


2 

•  «* 


e 


v> 


Above 

average 


Below 

average 


TABLE  I.  Comparison  of  performance 

Serial  action 


Below  average  Above  average 


Series 

HI, 

A  ... 

. . .  4 

Series 

HI, 

A  ... 

...  8 

ii 

III, 

B  ... 

•  ••  5 

ii 

HI, 

B  ... 

...  8 

a 

IV, 

...  7 

a 

IV, 

. . .  12 

Series 

III, 

A  ... 

. . .  9 

Series 

HI, 

A  ... 

...  4 

a 

III, 

B  ... 

...  8 

ii 

III. 

B  ... 

...  4 

a 

IV, 

ii 

IV, 

...  7 

It  is  evident  that,  in  each  series  of  tests,  there  is  a  rough  ten¬ 
dency  for  those  who  are  above  average  in  serial  action  to  be 

8  8  12 

above  average  in  musical  achievement  ( - ,  - ,  - ),  while 

12  12  19 

those  who  are  below  average  in  the  test  tend  to  be  below  average 

9  8  12 

in  musical  achievement  ( - ,  - ,  - ). 

13  13  19 

That  visual  serial  action  indicates  roughly  the  subject’s  ability 
for  sight-reading  is  shown  by  the  mean  ranks  in  the  test,  of  the 
Northwestern  students,  graded  by  letter  according  to  success  in 
sight-reading :  A,  9;  B,  10;  C,  14;  D,  25.  The  “A”  and  “B” 
students  were  least  clearly  differentiated.  In  the  Iowa  ratings, 
the  correlation  between  performance  in  the  test  and  success  in 
sight-reading  was  r,  .43,  p.e.,  .09.  In  that  group,  those  who  were 
above  average  in  serial  action  were  generally  above  average  in 
sight-reading,  while  those  who  were  below  average  in  serial  action 
tended  to  be  below  in  sight  reading. 

There  was  some  correlation  of  serial  action  with  professor’s 
rating  in  “control  or  rhythm’’  (.37,  p.e.,  .09).  No  definite  cor¬ 
relation  with  such  single  ratings  as  those  on  Application,  Ambi¬ 
tion  or  Progress,  has  been  established  for  either  group. 

While  these  data  do  not  furnish  conclusive  proof,  they  give 
encouraging  evidence  that  serial  action  measures  abilities  which 
partially  determine  success  in  musical  action. 

Radio-telegraphy. — The  three  groups  of  army  recruits  apply¬ 
ing  for  training  in  radio-telegraphy  were  of  a  most  miscellaneous 
character.  Not  only  did  they  vary  enormously  in  education  and 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


375 


experience,  but  also  in  previous  training  in  telegraphy.  Each 
group  included  expert  professional  telegraphers,  somewhat  ex¬ 
perienced  apprentices  and  amateurs,  and  “green,”  unskilled  men- 
of-all-work.  The  relation  of  the  serial  action  test,  therefore,  to 
achievement  in  telegraphy  was  greatly  complicated. 

The  distribution  of  these  applicants  according  to  grades  in 
serial  action  showed  (as  Table  II  illustrates)  that  the  operators 
and  apprentices  of  previous  training  included  more  than  a  propor¬ 
tional  share  of  the  superior  subjects  in  serial  action.  This  slight 
superiority  of  telegraphers  is  perhaps  due,  not  to  their  training 
as  such,  but  to  the  selective  process  lying  behind  it,  by  which 
capable  men  generally  acquire  some  profession  or  field  of  inter¬ 
est,  while  less  capable  men  remain  unskilled. 

TABLE  II.  Distribution  of  43  recruits  by  grades 

in  serial  action 

A  B  C  D  E 


Operators  .  2  1  5  1  0 

Apprentices  .  1  4  2  1  o 

Unskilled  men  .  1  4  11  7  3 


The  eight  weeks’  course  of  training  in  radio-telegraphy  which 
each  group  received,  was  interrupted  by  “fatigue”  duties,  military 
drill,  transfers,  and  other  distractions.  The  training  of  the  last 
group  was  seriously  disrupted  by  the  influenza  epidemic.  At 
various  times  during  the  training,  particularly  of  the  first  two 
groups,  tests  of  speed  and  accuracy  in  sending  and  receiving 
words  by  telegraph  were  given  to  the  subjects.  In  the  second 
group,  these  tests  came  periodically,  once  a  week. 

Achievement  in  telegraphy,  as  thus  measured,  was  taken  as 
the  criterion  with  which  the  serial  action  test  was  compared. 
No  correlation  between  scores  in  serial  action  and  ability  in  send¬ 
ing  or  receiving  words  telegraphically  were  apparent  for  the 
groups  as  a  whole.  Neither  did  accuracy  in  serial  action  evince 
any  such  relationship.  Various  other  means  of  comparing  the 
respective  performances  failed  to  demonstrate  any  relationship. 
If  the  comparison  of  achievement  were  limited  to  those  men 
who  completed  the  course  and  had  entered  it  entirely  ignorant  of 
telegraphy — and  such  a  comparison  would  alone  be  entirely  just 
to  the  test — the  number  of  cases  would  be  so  reduced  that  the 


376 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


results,  although  favorable,  would  be  unreliable  for  any  general 
conclusions. 

Typezvriting. — In  Fig.  15  are  given  the  percentage  distribu¬ 
tions,  in  serial  action  speed,  of  two  groups  of  university  men : 
one  group  of  40  men  who  could  typewrite,  and  the  other,  of  57 
who  could  not.  Fig.  16  shows  the  relative  accuracy  of  the  same 
two  groups.  A  slight  advantage  in  speed,  but  no  advantage 
in  accuracy,  is  apparent  on  the  side  of  those  subjects  who  could 


Fig.  15.  Scores  in  serial  action  of  men  who  typewrite  and  men  who  do  not. 
Fig.  16.  Accuracy  in  serial  action  of  men  who  typewrite  and  men  who  do  not. 


typewrite.  This  slight  superiority  may  be  attributed  to  the 
greater  economy  and  ease  of  key-manipulation  which  comes  with 
practice  in  typewriting.  The  distribution  curves  of  speed,  for 
Series  V  and  VI,  in  which  the  subjects  were  students  of  type¬ 
writing,  did  not  show  quite  as  quick  reactions  as  the  distribution 
of  musical  students  (Series  IV).  Practice  in  typewriting  is  not 
as  significant  a  factor  in  this  test  as  certain  other  variables  such 
as  maturity  and  native  capacities. 

The  relation  of  scores  in  serial  action  to  attainment  in  type¬ 
writing  was  especially  investigated  in  the  group  of  176  students  in 
typewriting  at  Des  Moines.  The  criteria  of  ability  to  typewrite 
consisted  of  (1)  instructors’  ratings  and  (2)  a  “speed  test”  in 
typing. 

When  the  gross  scores  of  the  176  subjects  in  the  speed-of-type- 
writing  test  were  correlated  with  speed  scores  in  serial  action, 


BASIC  MEASURE  OF  MOTOR  CAPACITY 


377 


the  coefficient  was  found  to  be  r,  .15,  p.e.,  .05.  The  correlation 
of  accuracy  in  the  typing  test  with  accuracy  in  serial  action  was 
r,  .10,  p.e.,  .05.  Both  of  the  criteria  were  regarded,  by  in¬ 
structors  as  well  as  experimenters,  as  quite  unsatisfactory. 

Conclusions 

The  conclusions  to  which  this  investigation  has  led  may  be 
summarized  as  follows : 

(1) .  A  “personal  equation’’  of  speed  in  serial  action  has 

been  found.  There  are  relatively  fixed  types  of  subjects  apparent 
in  this  measurement  of  motor  capacity.  Four  kinds  of  reagents 
appear :  quick-accurate,  quick-inaccurate,  slow-accurate  and 

slow-inaccurate. 

(2) .  No  consistent  relationship  obtains  between  mean  speed 
and  mean  accuracy  of  serial  action.  Relative  position  in  speed 
does  not  generally  indicate  relative  position  in  accuracy.  Sim¬ 
ilarly,  in  the  trials  of  each  subject,  a  relatively  fast  or  slow  time 
in  any  trial  does  not  consistently  entail  a  proportionally  large 
or  a  proportionally  small  number  of  errors. 

(3) .  (a)  Performance  in  serial  action  shows  some  correlation 
with  attainment  in  other  motor  tests,  viz.,  simple  and  complex 
reaction,  strength,  motility,  and  rhythmic  action.  The  correla¬ 
tions  are  generally  low  but  indicate  a  rough  agreement  in  the 
classification  of  subjects. 

(b)  The  test  furthermore  rates  subjects  in  general  agreement 
with  scores  in  the  “Civil  War”  code  test  and  the  “Russian”  tap¬ 
ping  code  test. 

(c)  Capacity  in  serial  action  shows  only  a  slight  relationship 
to  ability  as  measured  by  the  Vasey  vocabulary  test  and  army 
alpha.  The  serial  action  test  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  “intel¬ 
ligence”  test  analogous  to  these  tests;  it  measures  the  subject’s 
motor  capacities  while  the  “intelligence”  test  involves  more 
definitely  the  conceptual  and  higher  associational  process. 

(4) .  From  the  comparisons  of  serial  action  scores  with  cri¬ 
teria  of  proficiency  in  musical  action,  evidence  was  found  that 
the  serial  action  test  indicates  relative  capacity  for  musical  action, 


3  7$ 


C.  FREDERICK  HANSEN 


especially  for  sight-reading.  The  criteria  for  competence  in  teleg¬ 
raphy  were  so  rough,  and  the  candidates  were  so  miscellaneously 
composed  of  experienced  telegraphers  and  unskilled  beginners, 
that  no  satisfactory  comparisons  with  serial  action  scores  were 
attained  in  that  field.  Correlations  of  test  scores  with  students’ 
proficiency  in  typewriting  were  low  or  negligible;  but,  because 
the  factors  for  correlation  were  possibly  not  well  chosen,  the  data 
were  regarded  as  inconclusive. 

(5).  Among  the  factors  which  have  affected  the  results  of 
comparisons  with  practical  criteria,  the  following  are  especially 
important:  (1)  The  nature  of  the  subject’s  task  in  the  test 
differs  from  that  of  his  vocational  activities  in  the  strain  or 
pressure  under  which  he  takes  the  test.  An  equalization  of  in¬ 
centive  and  of  demand  is  needed.  (2)  The  widely  different  train¬ 
ing  and  experience  of  subjects,  both  in  their  vocational  and  avo- 
cational  aspects,  require  consideration  and  sometimes  the  use  of 
partial  correlation.  (3)  The  forcefulness  and  suggestion  of 
the  individual  giving  the  test  plays  a  very  significant  part  in  the 
subject’s  performance,  even  when  the  verbal  instructions  are 
strictly  standardized.  (4).  The  criteria  used  to  gauge  vocational 
success  must  be  made  more  satisfactory.  When  such  factors  as 
these  are  definitely  controlled,  some  measure  of  serial  action  will 
probably  prove  its  usefulness. 

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